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MODERN ELECTRIC 
RAILWAY PRACTICE 


VOLUME II 


AIR BRAKE SYSTEMS 


ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 
THEIR OPERATION ano EQUIPMENT 


BY 
CALVIN F. SWINGLE 


and a Corps of Practical Electrical Experts 


ILLUSTRATED 





PUBLISHERS 
WoevV WHEAT COMPANY 
CHICAGO 









COPYRIGHT 1909 
BY 
THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF PRACTICAL MECHANICS 
CHICAGO 








AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 


SYLVANUS P. THOMPSON, 


Author of Elementary Lessons in Electricity and Mag- 
netism. 


C. WALTON SWOOPEH, 
Author of Lessons in Practical Electricity. 


HENRY 8S. CARHART, LL.D., 
and 
HORATIO N. CHUTE, M.S., 


Authors of Physics for High School Students. 


ROBERT ANDREWS MILLIKAN, Ph.D., 
and 
HENRY GORDON GALE, Ph.D., 


Authors of A First Course in Physies. 


FRANKLIN LEONARD POPE, 
Author of Modern Practice of the Electric Telegraph. 


FRANCIS B. CROCKER, E.M., Ph.D., 
Author of Electric Lighting. 


364399 


AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 


CLARK CARYL HASKINS, 
- Author of Electricity Made Simple. 


HENRY C. HORSTMAN 
and 
VICTOR H. TOUSLEY, 


Authors of Modern Wiring Diagrams and Descriptions. 


L. P. DICKINSON, 
Author of Easy Electrical Experiments. 


FREDERICK BEDELL 
and 
A. C. CREHORE, 


Authors of Alternating Currents. 


LOUIS BELL, 
Author of The Art of Illumination. 


H. C. CUSHING, 


Author of Standard Wiring for Electric Light and 
Power. 


CARL HERING, 
Author of Ready Reference Tables, 


AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 


RoW. -HUTCHINSON, JR.., 
Author of Long Distance Electric Power. 


Hari ees he eA 
and 
H. M. HOBART, 


Authors of Electric Railway Engineering. 


EK. PARRY, 
Author of Electrical Equipment of Tramways. 


F. A. C. PERRINE, A. M. D. Sc., 
Author of Conductors for Electrical Distribution. 


WM. JOHN MAC QUORN RANKINE, 


Late Professor of Engineering, Glasgow University. 
Author of Manual of Applied Mechanics. 


DRek IH THURSTON: 
Author of Manual of the Steam Engine. 


KENELM EDGCUMB, 
Author of Electrical Engineers’ Hand Book. 


HENRY M. HOBART, 


Author of Electric Motors, Their Mi and 
Construction. 


AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 


PROF. WM. KENT, 
Author of Mechanical Engineers’ Reference Book. 


DR PEABODY 
Author of Manual of Steam Boilers. 


PROEY WALLER SS UaLON: 
Author of Practical Engineers’ Hand Book. 


PROF. JAMEISON, 


Author of Appled Mechanics—Mechanies of Engi- 
neering. 


HENRY ADAMS, 


Professor of Engineering, London College. 
Author of Handbook for Mechanical Engineers. 


WILFRID J. LINEHAM, 


Mo cinst aM eM. Insts Wik 
Author of Text Book of Mechanical Engineering. 


DR. A. STODOLA 
and 
DR. LOUIS C. LOEWENSTEIN, 


Authors of Steam Turbines, Gas Turbines, Heat Engines, 


GEO. H. BABCOCK, 
Ex-President American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 


AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 


W. GEIPEL, M. Inst., E. E., 


M. HAMILTON KILGOUR, A. M. I. C. E., M. I. E. E., 
Authors of Pocket Book of Electrical Formule. 


T. O’CONNOR SLOANE, A. M., E. M., Ph. D., 


Author of Arithmetic of Electricity, Standard Electrical 
Dictionary, Electricians’ Handy Book. 


WM. M. BARR, 


Member American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 
Author of Boilers and Furnaces—Chimneys of Brick 
and Metal. 


Gye KING X «Hoke 


Member American Institute of Electrical Engineers. 
Author of Electric Light Wiring. 


HevA, HOSTHE, 
Author of Electrical Engineers’ Pocket Book. 


S. A. FLETCHER, 
Chief Westinghouse Companies’ Publishing Department. 


F. H. GALE 
and 
MARTIN P. RICE, 


General Electric Companies’ Publication Bureau. 


< 
Fa Ney 


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raul te 





PREFACE. 


The days of the hand brake, and mechanical friction 
brake for street and suburban electric cars have come 
and gone, and such appliances are now regarded by lead- 
ing and experienced railway officials as being wholly in- 
adequate to meet the demands of modern electric passen- 
ger transportation.: The author has been at considerable 
pains therefore to collect, condense, and compile all of 
the latest available information bearing upon this most 
important subject of handling an electric car, or train of 
ears, safely, and at the same time economically. Begin- 
ning with a full and clearly illustrated description of the 
' Westinghouse A. M. M. Brake equipment especially 
adapted to electric traction work, each of the other types 
of straight air, and automatic service is taken up and 
its construction and operation clearly explained, and 
plainly illustrated. This includes the National Straight 
Air Brake Equipment, not only for straight air, but as 
adapted for automatic service also; The General Electric 
Company’s Air Brake in all of its details; The Christen- 
sen Air Brake, both straight, and automatic, is fully de- 
seribed and illustrated, also the Westinghouse S. M. E. 
equipment. ‘Considerable space is also given to electric 
brakes and friction brakes. 

The Electric Locomotive in all of its details is clearly 
desezibed, and its construction made plain by engravings 

Il. ii 


iv PREFACE 


showing every detail, also the enclosed Arc Head Light 
for locomotives and motor cars. 

A set of questions and answers, or catechism, follows 
immediately after each subject has been discussed, thus 
enabling the student to firmly grasp and retain in his 


mind the pith of the matter studied. 
Il. 


THE AIR BRAKE IN ELECTRIC RAILROADING. 


It is not exaggeration to say that no other invention 
in steam or electric railway engineering has contributed 
so largely to the safe operation of high speed ears as has 
the power or air brake in its present improved form. 
The hand brake and mechanical friction brake have 
come and gone, being now regarded by all well-informed 
and experienced railway officials as wholly inadequate to 
the demands of modern electric railway operation. 

Motormen and conductors of electric cars should 
possess something more.than a mere knowledge of how 
to apply and release brakes. They should understand 
the mechanical principles represented in the brake, and 
should know how to detect, remedy, and report any, and 
all kinds of defects which may arise. 

The cars operated in interurban service are not only 
very heavy, but the speed at which they travel is in many 
eases faster than ordinary steam railroad cars. Many 
steam railroads feel that they are doing very well if their 
freight schedules average twenty-five miles an hour, 
whereas nearly all interurban electric railways make an 
average schedule of at least thirty miles an hour. Such 
being the case, it is highly important that motormen and 
conductors master as fully as possible all detailed knowl- 
edge of the operation and maintenance of the brake 
apparatus. 

An earnest effort has been made by the author to 
place before the student in the following pages a plain, 
yet comprehensive description of the several systems of 
air brakes as applied to electric cars and locomotives. 

1 


2 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


This will include in detail the very latest and most 
modern apparatus. The principles of its construction 
and action are set forth in plain language, and correct 
methods of operating the different systems are explained 
in such a manner as to be easily understood. 


THE WESTINGHOUSE AMM BRAKE 
EQUIPMENT. 


This equipment is designed for use on electrically 
operated vehicles, running normally in trains up to five 
cars in length, but subject to single car operation at 
times. It is therefore more especially adapted for both 
eity and high-speed interurban train service, and pos- 
sesses certain marked advantages, some of which may be 
enumerated as follows: 

Ist. It is a strictly automatic brake system; that is, 
any reduction in brake pipe pressure, which may result 
from a rupture of the piping, burst hose, or parting of 
the train, will cause the brakes to apply with full power. 
This is the essential feature which distinguishes the auto- 
matic from the straight air types of brake apparatus, 
and to which all other operative advantages are subordi- 
nate in the safe and economical handling of the trains 
of today. 

2d. It possesses the quick-recharge feature, by which 
a rapid recharging of the auxiliary reservoirs is secured, 
thus insuring the possibility of obtaining full braking 
power immediately after a release has been made, and 
permitting as many applications and releases in quick 
succession as may be desired, without depleting the 
system. 

3d. It possesses the quick-service feature, which se- 


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AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 3 


cures a very quick serial action of the brakes throughout 
the train in service applications, similar in character to 
that obtained in an emergency application, but less in 
degree. This makes certain the prompt and uniform 
application of all brakes in the train during service 
operation, and increases correspondingly the etfective- 
ness of any given brake pipe reduction. 

4th. It has the graduated release feature (at the 
_ triple valve), which enables the motorman to control 
the exhaust of brake cylinder pressure at will and thus 
partially or entirely release the brakes on the entire 
train as may be desirable. This permits him to apply 
the brakes with maximum power at the beginning of the 
stop and release in a series of steps or graduations as 
the speed diminishes, thus accommodating the brake shoe 
pressure to the reduction in speed, allowing the trucks 
to right themselves, and combining smoothness with 
accuracy, and shortness of stop to much greater degree 
than is possible under ordinary conditions where this 
feature does not exist. 

5th. In addition to the preceding, by simply running 
an extra pipe from the triple valve exhaust to the brake 
valve it is possible to obtain a straight-air release, when 
desired, on the leading or operating car. By means of 
this the brake cylinder exhaust on the leading car only 
of a train, or on any motor car operating singly, can be 
controlled at the brake valve, and the brakes on that car 
sraduated off exactly as in straight-air operation. This 
is of great advantage where single-car operation is fre- 
quent or where service conditions require it. 

6th. It has high-pressure emergency. This feature 
insures maximum brake-cylinder pressure in emergency 
applications, thus giving the shortest possible stop when 
it is most needed. 


4 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


OPERATING PARTS. 


The diagram, Fig. 1, shows, in a clear and easily under- 
stood manner, the general arrangement of the operating 
parts of a motor ear fitted with the AMM equipment, and 
the following is a short description of each one of the 
parts : 

1. <A motor-driven air compressor, which furnishes 
the compressed air for use in the brake system. 

2. An electric pump governor, which automatically 
controls the operation of the compressor between pre- 
determined minimum and maximum pressures. 

3. <A fuse box, fuse, and two snap switches, in the line 
from the trolley to the governor and air compressor, pro- 
tecting the latter from any excessive flow of current and 
enabling the current supply to the compressor to be 
entirely cut off when desired. 

4. Two main reservoirs, to which the compressed air 
is delivered from the air compressor, where it is cooled 
and stored for use in charging the brake system. Where 
climatic conditions render it necessary, radiating pipe 
should be installed between the compressor and the first 
reservoir, and between the two reservoirs, to assist in the 
cooling process. 

5. A safety valve connected to the main reservoir 
pipe, which protects against excessive main reservoir 
pressure. 

6. A feed valve, which automatically maintains a 
predetermined normal pressure in the brake system. 

7. A duplex air gauge connected to the piping near 
each brake valve, which shows by a red hand the pres- 
sure in the main reservoirs, and by a black hand the 
pressure in the brake pipe. 


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8. Two brake valves, one at each end of the car, 
through which (a) the air supplied by the feed valve is 
allowed to enter the brake pipe for the purpose of releas- 
ing the brakes and recharging the system; (0) the air 
in the brake pipe is allowed to escape to the atmosphere 
when applying the brakes; (c) the flow of air to or from 
the brake system may be prevented as when the brakes 
are being held applied; (d) the air in the brake cylinder 
is allowed to flow directly to the atmosphere (‘‘Straight- 
Air Release’’), on equipments where the brake cylinder 
exhaust is piped to the brake valve. 

9. <A triple valve, which has connections through the 
brake cylinder head (or pipe bracket if used) to the 
brake pipe branch pipe, the control pipe branch pipe, 
and the auxiliary reservoir, brake cylinder and exhaust 
pipes. It operates automatically in response to an in- 
crease or decrease in brake pipe pressure, so as to (a) 
charge the auxiliary reservoir, by opening communica- 
tion to it from the brake and control pipes, (b) apply the 
brakes, by allowing the compressed air stored in the 
auxiliary reservoir to flow into the brake cylinder, (c) 
release the brakes, by allowing the air in the brake eylin- 
der to escape to the atmosphere. 

10. An auxiliary reservoir, in which is stored the air 
supply for operating the brakes on the ear. 

11. <A brake cylinder, with a piston and rod so con- 
nected through the brake levers and rods to the brake 
shoes, that when the piston is forced outward by air pres- 
sure this force is transmitted through said rods and 
levers to the brake shoes and applies them to the wheels. 

12. A conductor’s valve, located inside each ear, 
enabling the conductor or guard to apply the brakes if 
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 DIAGRAMMATIC ILLUSTRATION AMM EQUIPMENT MOTOR CAR 





Fig. 1. 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE yf 


13. Various cut out cocks, air strainers, check valves, 
hose, couplings, dummy couplings, ete., the location and 
uses of which will be readily understood from the dia- 
erams Figures 1 and 2. 

14. Two ar alarm whistles, one at each end of the 
ear, with whistle valves and cut out cocks. 

Figure 2 shows in a graphic manner the equipment of 
a trailer ear, and is self-explanatory. In operative fea-_ 
tures a trailer car corresponds exactly to any motor car 
equipped with this device, with the exception of the lead- 
ing, or operating feature. It differs from a motor car 
in that it has no brake valves, alarm whistle, or motor 
compressor, governor, or main reservoir. It draws its 
supply of air from the motor ears in the train, through 
the brake, and control pipes. 


THE TYPE M TRIPLE VALVE. 


In city service requiring its frequent stops, and maxi- 
mum of flexibility demanded of a brake equipment, as 
compared with the interurban or long-distance runs 
between cities, there are two extremes of service required 
of the air brake equipment. For instance, the city service 
requires a moderate brake cylinder pressure, for mod- 
erate brake pipe reductions, and the ability to graduate 
the release, as well as the application of the brake, while 
for a high speed service between towns, a high emergency 
pressure is essential when the shortest possible stop is 
demanded. | 


M TRIPLE VALVE. 


In order to meet these requirements, the Westinghouse 
Traction Brake Company has developed the Type M 


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ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


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AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE . 9 


triple valve, especially adapted to the particular kind of 
service described. This triple valve forms a part of the 
AMM equipment, which is designed throughout to meet 
the service conditions outlined above. 

Figure 3 shows a full view of this valve, and Figure 4 
gives end and side sectional illustrations showing the 
working parts, the names of which are as follows: 





Fig. 3. The Type “M” Triple Valve. 


2. Valve Body; 3, Slide Valve; 4, Piston; 5, Piston 
Ring; 6, Slide-Valve Spring; 7, Graduating Valve; 8, 
Graduating-Valve Spring; 9, Check Valve; 10, Rubber 
Seat or Check Valve; 11, Check-Valve Spring; 12, Cap 
Nut or Check Valve; 13, By-Pass Piston; 14, By-Pass 
Piston Ring; 15, Cap Nut for By-Pass Piston; 16, By- 
Pass Valve; 17, Rubber Seat for By-Pass Valve; 18, Cap 
Nut for By-Pass Valve; 19, By-Pass Valve Spring; 20, 
Cylinder Cap; 21, Graduating Nut; 22, Graduating 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


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AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE ila 


Spring; 23, Graduating Sleeve; 24, Bolt and Nut; 25, 
Cylinder Cap Gasket. 

Fig. 5 illustrates the actual arrangement of ports and 
cavities in the graduating valve, slide valve and slide- 
valve seat of the M-2-A Triple Valve. From Fig. 5 it 
ean be easily seen that it is impossible to show all the 
ports and connecting passageways in the slide valve, 
eraduating valve and seat by any single section taken 
through the valve. Figs. 6, 7, 8,9, 10 and 11 have there- 
fore been made to show in a purely diagrammatic way 
the relations of the various ports to each other, for the 
different positions of the triple-valve piston. The actual 
proportions and the mechanical construction of the parts 
have been entirely disregarded in order to make the con- 
nections and operation more easily understood. The pipe 
connections to the triple valve are plainly marked at the 
side of the cuts, Figs. 6 to 11 inclusive. 

The letters designating the ports and passageways, 
appearing on Figs. 4 and 5 and Figs. 6 to 11 inclusive, 
correspond throughout. By comparing these diagram- 
matic views and the explanations given with Figs. 4 and 
5, the various connections and the relations of the dif- 
ferent ports will be clear. 

Referring to the plan of the slide-valve seat, Fig. 5, 
the ports are as follows: 7 leads to the brake cylinder, 
t to the top of the by-pass piston, p to the exhaust, x to 
the control pipe, and y to the check valve 9 in the pas- 
sageway leading from the brake-pipe connection. The 
registration of the ports in the slide valve, graduating 
valve and slide-valve seat is most easily followed and 
understood by reference to and comparison with the 
diagrammatic drawings, Figs. 6 to 11 inclusive, and the 
explanations given for each, 


12 





Fig. 5. 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 





' PISTON END. 


FACE VIEW 
GRADUATING VALVE 


PISTON ENO. 





PLAN VIEW 
SLIDE VALVE 


SLIDE VALVE SEAT 


Type ‘“M” Triple Valve.—Graduating Valve, Slide Valve, 
and Slide-Valve Seat, 


PISTON END 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 13 


OPERATION OF THE TYPE ‘‘M’’ TRIPLE VALVE. 


Charging. Referring to Figs. 5 and 6, air from the 
brake pipe enters the triple valve through the passages 
a, e, g and h to the face of the triple-valve piston (which 
is then foreed to Release Position as shown) thence 
through the feed groove 7 to the chamber above the slide 
valve and to the auxiliary reservoir. Brake pipe air in 
passage a also forces the check valve 9 from its seat and 
flows thence through the ports y, 7 and wu into the aux- 
iliary reservoir. 





Fig. 6. Release and Charging Position. 


At the same time air from the control pipe, entering 
the triple valve through passage x, flows through port k 
into the chamber above the slide valve and to the auxil- 
iary reservoir. The latter is thus recharged from two 
different sources through three different channels, and 
full auxiliary reservoir pressure can be restored after 
an application in a very short time. The rate at which 


14 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


‘this takes place is such that the rise of auxiliary reser-° 
voir pressure is proportional to the fall of pressure in 
the brake cylinder, so that by the time the brake is fully 
released, the reservoir is practically fully recharged. The 
check valve 9 prevents the air in the auxiliary reservoir 
from flowing back into passage a, and the brake pipe 
when, for any reason, the pressure in the latter becomes 
lower than that in the reservoir. 

When in this position, air from the brake cylinder 
entering the triple valve through passage r, flows through 
ports n, w, m and » to the exhaust, thus releasing the 
brakes. 


Service Application. The parts of the triple valve 
being in Release and Charging Position as shown in Fig. 
6, a service reduction in brake-pipe pressure reduces the 
pressure in chamber h and on the face of the triple valve 
piston below that remaining in the auxiliary reservoir 
on the opposite side of the piston. The higher auxiliary- 
reservoir pressure therefore forces the piston in the di- 
rection of the lower brake-pipe pressure, carrying with it 
the attached graduating valve. The first movement of 
the piston cuts off the feed groove 7 and the graduating 
valve, then closes the ports , 7 and k, thus closing com- 
munication between the brake pipe and the auxiliary 
reservoir, the control pipe and the auxiliary reservoir, 
and the exhaust from the brake cylinder to the atmos- 
phere. The same movement uncovers port z and con- 
nects ports q and o, in the main slide valve, through 
cavity v in the graduating valve. The spider on the end 
of the piston stem then engages the end of the slide 
valve, which is carried along with the piston and gradu- 
ating valve as the reduction continues. This brings the 
parts into Quick-Service Position shown in Fig. 7. Sery- 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 15 


ice port 2 in the slide valve registers with the brake-cyl- 
inder port r in the seat, permitting the air in the auxil- 
iary reservoir to flow to the brake cylinder and apply 
the brakes. At the same time the quick-service ports 0 
and g and cavity v connect passage y, above the check 
valve 9, with passage r leading to the brake cylinder, 
thus allowing air from the brake pipe to lift the check 
valve and flow through the above named ports to the 





Fig. 7. Quick-Service Position, 


brake cylinder. This constitutes the Quick-Service ac- 
tion of the triple valve, in that it causes a slight but 
definite reduction in brake-pipe pressure locally at each 
triple valve, which quickly and uniformly transmits from 
ear to ear throughout the train the effect of a reduction 
in brake-pipe pressure made at the brake valve. This 
is not great in amount; first, because the ports and pas- 
sageways are small; and, second, because in the move- 
ment of the slide valve 3 toward Full-Service Position 
the quick-service port q is restricted as it approaches 
this position, and completely closed just before the serv- 


16 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


ice port z is fully open. The amount by which the serv- 
ice port is opened in any given case depends on the rate 
of reduction in brake-pipe pressure as compared with 
that of the auxiliary reservoir. If the former is at first 
rapid as compared with the latter (which would be the 
ease with short trains) the higher auxiliary-reservoir 
pressure moves the piston at once to Full-Service Posi- 
tion, Fig. 8, thus automatically cutting out the quick- 
service feature where it is not needed. When in Full- 





Fig. 8. Full-Service Position. 


Service Position, Fig. 8, the service port z is fully open 
and the quick-service port qg is closed. This stops the flow 
of air from the brake pipe to the cylinder and the quick- 
service action ceases. As shown in the cut, the gradu- 
ating spring is compressed slightly when the piston is in 
Full-Service Position. 

Lap. After a sufficient brake-pipe reduction has been 
made to produce the desired application of the brakes, 
the brake-valve handle is lapped, and further escape of 
air from the brake pipe is prevented. This position is 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE aby) 


ealled service lap, and is shown in figure 9, all of the 
ports being blanked by the graduating valve, and further 
flow of air to the brake cylinder is stopped. During lap 
position the main slide valve remains in service position, 
a movement of the piston and graduating valve serving 
to lap the valve, while a very slight reduction in brake 
pipe pressure will again bring the piston and graduating 
valve into service position. While the piston 4 (see Fig. 
9) is in service lap position, the pressure on both sides 





Fig. 9. Service-Lap Position. 


of it must be equal. If now the brake pipe pressure is 
increased in order to release the brakes, the higher 
pressure on that side of the piston will cause it to move 
the graduating and slide valves to the extreme left, to 
release and recharging position (see Fig. 6), and the 
brake cylinder air is exhausted through ports r and n, 
cavity w and port m to exhaust passage p and atmos- 
phere, while at the same time the auxiliary reservoir is 
being recharged through charging ports « and y and 
feed groove 7, as described under the head of charging. 


18 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Graduated Release. If, however, after the brakes have 
been applied, the reduction previously made in the brake 
pipe is only partially restored, and only sufficient air is 
permitted to flow into the brake pipe to move piston 4, 
with the slide and graduating valves, to Release Position, 
Fig. 6, and the brake-valve handle is then returned to 
Lap Position, the flow of air from the control pipe 
through ports « and k to the auxiliary reservoir continues 
after the rise in brake-pipe pressure has ceased. This 
will raise the pressure on the auxiliary-reservoir side of 





Fig. 10. Graduated-Release-Lap Position. 


the triple-valve piston slightly above that on the brake- 
pipe side, and cause the piston and its attached gradu- 
ating valve to move to the right to Graduated-Release- 
Lap Position shown in Fig. 10. 

Emergency. - When the brake-pipe pressure is reduced 
suddenly, or its reduction continues to be more rapid 
than that in the auxiliary reservoir, the triple-valve pis- 
ton moves to the extreme right, compressing the gradu- 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 19 


ating spring and bringing the parts into Emergency 
Position as shown in Fig. 11. In this position air from 
the auxiliary reservoir enters the brake-cylinder passage 
ry through the port J in the main slide valve instead of 
port z as in service application. At the same time port s 
in the main slide valve registers with port ¢ in the seat, 
thus permitting air from the auxiliary reservoir to flow 
to the face of the ‘‘By-Pass’’ piston 18, the other side of 
which is connected to the brake cylinder through port r. 
As there is no pressure in the brake cylinder at this 





Fig. 11. Emergency Position. 


instant, the by-pass piston with its attached by-pass valve 
16 is forced to the left, as shown in Fig. 11, thus opening 
a passageway between the control-pipe connection x and 
the brake-cylinder connection r through the by-pass 
valve. Air continues to flow from the control pipe to the 
brake cylinder through this channel until the auxiliary 
reservoir and brake-cylinder pressures become nearly 
equal. Then the by-pass piston and valve are returned 
to their normal positions by the valve spring 19, and the 
flow of air through the by-pass valve is stopped. 


TRAILER CAR. 


The equipment of a trailer car consists of an auxiliary 
reservoir, brake cylinder, triple valve, double cut out, 
combined check valve and strainer, conductor’s valve, 
brake and control pipes and the accompanying fittings, 
as shown in Fig. 1. In operative features, therefore, a 
trailer car corresponds to any motor car, except the lead- 
ing or operating one. It differs from a motor car in 
having no brake valves, alarm whistle, or motor com- 
pressor, governor, or main reservoir, its supply of air 
being drawn from the motor cars in the train. 


ARRANGEMENT OF APPARATUS. 


In deciding upon the best location for the compressor, 
radiating pipe, reservoirs, brake cylinder, etc., due regard 
must be had for the distribution of electrical apparatus 
under the car, the most efficient arrangement of founda- 
tion brake gear possible, maximum cooling effect, and 
accessibility of all apparatus for inspection. As proper 
maintenance is of the utmost importance in obtaining 
all the advantages possible with this equipment and in 
prolonging its life, this latter point should receive special 
attention. 

Place the air compressor, Fig. 12, near the side of the 
ear. The gear case should face outward, if the inspec- 
tions are made over a pit, to afford easy access to the 
commutator, brush holders, and oil cups. If the inspec- 
tions are to be made from the side of the car the gear 

20 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 21 


ease should face inward. The suction strainer is con- 
nected by piping with the air inlet. It should be so 
located as to insure a supply of clean, dry, cool air, 
which adds materially to the life and efficiency of the 
compressor. Usually this strainer is installed, either in 
one of the cabs, or on the roof. When the air compressor 
is operating, the air is drawn into the cylinders through 
the suction strainer, and past the inlet valves, com- 
pressed, and forced out past the discharge valves and 
through radiating pipe to the main reservoirs. As shown 





Fig. 12. Motor-Driven Compressor. Type D. Form EG. 


in Fig. 1, two main reservoirs are used, for the purpose 
of storing an abundant supply of compressed air to per- 
mit of promptly releasing the brakes and recharging the 
system. The division of the storage volume into two 
reservoirs also gives a more efficient arrangement for 
cooling the air and depositing the moisture, oil, or other 
foreign matter carried into the reservoirs, before passing 
on to the brake system. To assist in this the piping 
should be so installed as to drain into the reservoirs. The 
drain cocks should permit of easily draining the reser- 
voirs. As an accumulation of water or other foreign 
matter is not only injurious to the reservoirs, but is 


Pee ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


liable to seriously reduce their capacity, they should be 
drained at regular intervals. 

The amount of radiating pipe necessary must be de- 
cided upon according to the needs of each locality. 
Where it is always warm, it may be omitted. For 
obvious reasons, the reservoirs and radiating pipe should 
be placed as low and as near the outside of the car as 
possible and well removed from sources of heat, such 
as resistance grids, motors, ete. As indicated on the 
diagram, the main reservoirs are directly connected to 
the governor, feed valve, duplex air gauges, and alarm 
whistles. 





Fig. 13. Electric-Pump Governor. Type J. 


A cut-out cock and an air strainer are placed in the 
governor pipe—the former to cut off the supply of air 
to the governor when it is necessary, and the latter 
to protect the governor from dirt or foreign matter 
which may enter the pipe. 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 






SMMMMAA, 
Z 


eeeeeeeee 





ir .S 
ASSa 





1, hs 
"My, 


Fig. 14. Air Compressor on Motor Cars. 


23 


The air strainer should be placed as near the governor 
as possible. Figures 14 and 15 show, respectively, side 


and sectional views of the air compressor. 


The electric pump governor, Figs. 13 and 18, is usually 
set for a 15-lb. range, the actual pressures being de- 


24 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


termined by the operating conditions of each particular 
road. The standard and recommended cutting-in pres- 
sure is 85 lbs. (15 lbs. above the setting of the feed 
valve) and the cutting-out pressure 100 lbs. 

In the circuit between the trolley and governor are 
placed two snap switches, Fig. 16, and a fuse box with 
fuse, Fig. 17. The snap switch affords a means of cut- 
ting off the current to the air compressor when so de- 
sired; while the fuse serves to protect the motor from 
a dangerous continued overload by blowing, and thus 
opening the circuit, when the amount of current flowing 
to the compressor exceeds the capacity of the fuse. 


INSTALLATION OF WIRING. 


The wiring should be installed in a thorough manner, 
every precaution being taken to avoid the possibility of 
grounds developing after the car has been in service for 
a time. Whenever practicable, the wiring should be run 
inside the ear, securely cleated in place, and must always 
be so located that it may not be damaged when the body 
is being jacked up. At exposed places underneath the 
ear, and particularly at those points where the wire 
comes in contact with iron, it must be covered with rub- 
ber tubing. The size of rubber insulated wire which is 
recommended for the Nos. 1, 2 and 3 compressors when 
operating on standard railway voltage is No. 14 B. & S. 
gage. Although smaller sizes might do the work with- 
out excessive drop in voltage or danger of overheating, 
still they lack mechanical strength and a smaller wire 
than No. 14 is undesirable on this account. Under these 
conditions the No. 4 compressor should be wired with 
No. 12 B. & S. gage. 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 





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Invites) Ts IN ihe on Motor Cars. 


26 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The sequence in which the various parts should be 
connected is shown in Fig. 1, but the point at which 
the compressor circuit shall be tapped to the main trolley 
line is one to be determined in each individual ease. 
Connecting inside the main motor ehoke is not advisable, 
for, although the apparatus of the compressor circuit 
will be protected by the hghtning arrester on the car 
motor circuit, there are many drawbacks to this method. 

By tapping on the trolley line outside the main 
switches we overcome all disadvantages, and if the con- 
nection is made between the first main switch and the 





Fig. 16. Snap Switch. Miewed te.) Eusen box 


point where the light circuit is tapped off, and the lamp 
circuits are turned on during storms, a very efficient 
lightning arrester is provided. The better plan, of 
course, is to provide a separate arrester for the com- 
pressor circuit, which involves only a slight additional 
expense. From the trolley connections, run the wire 
first to one compressor switch, and then to the other, 
connecting them in series, and making sure that when 
they are open their dials show the word “‘off,’’ and when 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE Pf 





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Fig. 18. Air Compressor Governor on Motor Cars. 


closed, ‘‘on.’’ From thence run the wire through the 
fuse box to the governor, where the connection may be 
made to whichever terminal is most convenient. From 
the remaining terminal run a wire to the motor, where 
the connection must be made to the field lead which 


28 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


comes out of the frame near the door. The armature 
lead must be connected to the main motor ground wire. 
By this means a grounded field coil, or lead can cause 
no damage to the armature. The positive wire leading 
to the motor, and the ground return from the same 
should, under no circumstances, pass through the same 
hole, or be cleated together, but should be kept three 
or more inches apart. The compressor switches, one at 
each end, should be located within easy reach of the 
motorman, without necessitating his moving from his 
customary position. The fuse box should be connected 
between the last compressor switch and the governor. It 
ought not to be so placed that a screwdriver or other im- 
plement is needed to get at it, but should be easily ac- 
cessible, in a dry place, with its box well removed from 
any possible ground connections. The safety valve, Fig. 
19, is connected by a tee to the main reservoir pipe, in 
as protected a location as possible, and is set for 110 
Ibs., or 10 lbs. above the cutting-out point of the gov- 
ernor. In the main reservoir pipe beyond the safety 
valve, and governor connection, is placed a cut-out cock 
for the purpose of shutting off the source of air supply 
on that car when desirable. The feed valve, Fig. 20, 
is usually set to maintain a standard pressure of 70 lbs. 
for braking purposes, but this may be varied as operat- 
ing conditions require, the governor adjustment being 
then changed accordingly. It should be located as near 
as possible to the point where the branch is taken from 
the control pipe to the triple valve. The feed valve is 
bolted to a pipe bracket (which should be firmly attached 
to a solid support), thus avoiding the necessity of break- 
ing any pipe joints when removing the valve for clean- 
ing. An arrow cast on the top of this bracket indicates 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 29 


the direction in which the air should flow through the 
valve. Both the feed valve and pump governor should 
be installed inside the car where the best protection from 
dirt and weather will be afforded, and where they can 
be easily reached for adjustment or replacement. 






\ 
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RO 

















OSSSASSSSSSES 


Lihinyy 













Lie 





ia 


WHS 


7 





CASSIS 





Fig. 19. Safety Valve. Fig. 20. Feed Valve. 


The control pipe, extending the entire length of the 
train, is supplied from the feed valves on each motor 
ear. Each individual feed valve, therefore, supplies its 
proper proportion of the air required to recharge the 
control pipe when the pressure has been reduced by a 
release of the brakes. In this way each air compressor 
is made to do an equal share of the work necessary to 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


30 


supply the air required for operation, without the need 
of additional apparatus of any kind to secure this essen- 


Also, if any compressor fails, the work of 


supplying the air is divided among the remaining com- 


tial feature. 





64 67 


Y LLI UY, fi 
aN GEL, 
wrcenee HY)™ 














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reared 
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Pb Ne 


WUD 4 


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nit 
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Slide Valve—Feed Valve Open. 


Pig ake 


Flexible hose and couplings at each end of 
the car serve to connect this pipe throughout the train. 


pressors. 


From this pipe a branch leads to each triple valve, 


and one to the brake valves on each ear. 


The supply 


to the triple valve is used to obtain a graduated release 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 3] 


of the brakes and assist in the recharging of the auxiliary 
reservoirs, and the supply to the brake valve enables the 
motorman to release the brakes and assist in recharging 
the system. Figs. 21 and 22 are sectional views of the 











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a 


a 
WL 



















aiiiaama Z My 











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: Ui 


iy, 
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Fig. 22. Slide Valve—Feed Valve Closed. 


feed valve, showing it in the open and closed positions, 


respectively. 
The duplex air gauge, Fig. 24, should be installed in 


the direct line of vision of the motorman while running 


34 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


over the road, and where it is not obscured in any way 
by intervening objects, or too strong light back of, or 
near it. The connection for the brake pipe gauge hand 
is taken off from the brake pipe just below the brake 
valve cut-out cock. 

The alarm whistle valve should be within easy reach 
of the motorman, while operating the controller handle. 
The alarm whistle, whistle valve, and whistle cut-out 
eock are connected through the gauge and whistle pipe 





Fig. 23. Suspension Cradle of Air Compressor. 


directly to the main reservoir pipe. The connection 
should be made between the two reservoirs in order to 
avoid any possibility of interfering with the operation 
of the other devices when blowing the whistle. The 
connection for the main reservoir gauge hand is taken 
out from this pipe just below the cut-out cock. A choke 
in the gauge pipe protects the gauge from injury due to © 
the sudden drop in pressure in the pipe when the whistle 
is blown. 

The brake valve, Fig. 25, located in the operator’s 
compartment at each end of a motor car, is of the rotary 
type, with removable handles. The operating parts are 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 33 


contained in a body, mounted on a bracket to which all 
the pipe connections are made, so that the valve may 
be removed for examination and repairs without break- 
ing any pipe joints. 

Four pipe connections are made to the bracket as 
follows: the control pipe (supply pipe), brake pipe, 
brake cylinder exhaust pipe, and brake valve exhaust 
pipe. Raised letters are cast on the bottom of the pipe 
bracket, Fig. 26, as follows, to insure that proper con- 
nections are made: §S, for control pipe; BP, for the 
brake pipe; BC-EX, brake cylinder exhaust pipe; and 
EX, brake valve exhaust pipe. 





Fig. 24. Duplex Air Gauge. 


The different positions of the brake valve handle in 
order from the left (see Fig. 27) are: 

Ist. Release and Running Position (at the extreme 
left), in which the air from the control pipe, which 
always has access to the top of the rotary valve through 
a port in the body casting, is permitted to flow directly 
to the brake pipe, and the brake cylinder exhaust is con- 
nected to the atmosphere. 


34 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


2nd. Holding Position, in which air from the control 
pipe still flows into the brake pipe, but the brake eylin- 
der exhaust is prevented from flowing to the atmosphere. 
3rd. Lap Position, in which all ports in the valve 
are blanked, except the brake cylinder exhaust port. 
This is the only position in which the brake valve han- 





Fig. 25. Brake Valve. Type M15. 


dle can be removed. On all motor cars back of the head 
ear, the brake valves are in lap position. Consequently 
the brake cylinder exhaust port must be open in this 
position, in order to permit the release of the brakes on 
such ears. 

4th. Intermediate Service Position, in which a econ- 
nection is made from the brake pipe to the atmosphere 
through a relatively small opening, thus allowing the 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE abs. 


air in the brake pipe to escape to the atmosphere at a 
comparatively slow rate. 

Sth. Service Position, in which a connection is made 
from the brake pipe to the atmosphere through a larger 
opening than in the intermediate service position, thus 
allowing the air in the brake pipe to escape at a more 
rapid rate. 

6th. Emergency Position, in which a much larger 
opening is made from the brake cylinder to the atmos- 
phere. | 






2 PIPE _ \ 
BRAKE Pi IPE ) 
hid L Ou £ pipe 
eta oy P eXHAUST 
+ ope vA ~\, 
2 ‘ ' 
SUPPLY le 


Fig. 26. Brake Valve Pipe Bracket. 










_From the brake valve the brake pipe extends through- 
out the train, similar to the control pipe, having flexible 
hose and couplings to form the connection between the 
cars. Branch pipes lead from the brake pipe to the 
brake valve, conductor’s valve, and the triple valve con- 
nection on the brake cylinder head. When the brakes 
are released, the pressure in this pipe is the same as 
that in the control pipe—they being then connected 
through the operating brake valve. 

The conductor’s valve, one type of which is shown in 
Fig. 28, may be located at any convenient point in the 
ear, preferably with a cord attached to its handle and 


36 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


opened, the air in the brake pipe flows directly through 
it to the atmosphere, setting the brakes in emergency. 
It should therefore be used only in case of actual dan- 
ger, and should then be opened as wide as possible and 
held open until the train stops. 





Fig. 27. Brake Valve. Plan View. 


The connection from the brake pipe to its branch 
pipe, leading to the triple valve, is made through a 
brake pipe air strainer, Fig. 29, to prevent the entrance 
of foreign matter into the triple valve. For further 
protection, a branch pipe air strainer, Fig. 30, is inserted 
in the branch pipe close to the triple valve connection 
on the brake cylinder head or bracket. 

The alarm whistle valve should be within easy reach 
of the motorman while operating the controller handle. 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 37 


Near the triple valve is a double cut-out cock, Fig. 31, 
through which the branch pipes from the brake and con- 
trol pipes pass. This is similar to an ordinary cut-out 
cock, except that it has two separate passages through 
both body and key, the upper one for the 34-inch control 
branch pipe, and the lower one for the 1-inch brake pipe 
branch pipe. By this arrangement both passages are 
necessarily opened or closed together. This is of prime 
importance as under no circumstances should one of 





Fig. 28. Conductor’s Valve. 


these pipes be open and the other not. Whenever it is 
necessary to cut out the brake on a ear, this cock should 
be closed by turning the handle until it is parallel with 
the pipes leading through it, thus cutting off all air 
supply to the triple valve and auxiliary reservoir. 

In the control pipe branch pipe to the triple valve is 
placed a combined air strainer and check valve, Fig. 32, 


38 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


which allows the air from the control pipe to flow into 
the triple valve to assist in charging the auxiliary reser- 
voir, but not in the opposite direction. This check valve 


wriretap ff 





Fig, 29. Brake Pipe Air Strainer, 


7 a 
an A “ 


NOAA 4IPE THRE ae. 






sPIPE TAP 


Fig, 30. Branch Pipe Air Strainer. 









































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On 


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a, ar 
aff AT ge 
oy WAY. Sa 
2 Mi = Cll mo 
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ty 
a 
a 






as — 





Fig. 31. Double Cut Out Cock. 


therefore prevents the escape of the air stored in the 
auxiliary reservoir, and consequent loss of braking 
power, in case of loss of control pipe pressure due to 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 39 


burst hose, parting of train, or other cause. An arrow 
is east on the body of this valve to indicate the manner 
in which it should be installed. 


5° 
8 PIPE TAP. 


LLL 





Fig. 32. Combined Air Strainer and Check Valve. 


The triple valve, Fig. 3, may be attached directly to 
the cylinder head, to a bracket underneath the car, or 
to a stand inside the ear. 





















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(View ee ere 
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3 PIKE 18 
17 Yo 





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Hig, 33. Brake Cylinder. 


The auxiliary reservoir should be located as near the 
triple valve as possible, and where its drain cock can be 
easily reached from the side of the car. Its volume is 


40 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


such that when charged to 70 lbs. it will equalize with 
the brake cylinder at 50 Ibs. pressure. 

The brake cylinder (Fig. 33) should be located as 
near the triple valve as possible, and in such a manner 
as to be convenient for inspection. The piston 3 has a 
hollow rod in which is a solid push rod, 14, attached to 
the levers of the foundation brake gear. This allows the 
brakes to be applied by hand (when necessary) without 
moving the piston, but a pneumatic application forces 
out both hollow piston rod and push rod. The movement 
of the brake gear must therefore be free from binding, 
or undue friction, and adequate means provided for 
both hand and air brake systems, to insure that the push 
rod shall return fully home when a release is made. The 
release spring, 9, forces the piston to release position 
when the air pressure is exhausted from the opposite 
side of the piston. 

The packing leather, 7, is pressed against the cylinder 
wall by the packing expander, 8, and prevents the escape 
of air past the piston. 

INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE. In cleaning the eyl- 
inder and piston, special attention should be given to 
removing lint, freeing the leakage groove of any deposit, 
and thorough cleansing of the expander ring, packing 
leather, and piston. In oiling or greasing the cylinder, 
special attention should be given to the thorough lubri- 
eation of the top of the eylinder and the inside of the 
packing leather where the expander ring rests. <A light 
grease has been found to give the best results in the 
eylinder. If too much oil be used it will work back into 
the triple valve and ruin the rubber-seated check valve 
and gasket. It should be particularly observed that the 
follower nuts are tight. The travel of the piston should 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 41 


be adjusted to 4 inches (standing) as nearly as prac- 
ticable. This is important for the reason that if the 
piston travel is too short, a high braking power will be 
obtained, when only a low braking power is desired, 
the equalization of the auxiliary reservoir and brake cyl- 
inder pressures will oceur sooner, and the time in which 
the motorman can perform the operation is greatly re- 
duced. On the other hand, if the piston travel is too 
long, a proper braking power is not obtained for a given 
reduction, and the final ‘‘equalization’’ pressure is low- 
ered. If some brake cylinders in a train have long piston 
travel and others short, a very uneven braking power 
will be developed for any given brake pipe reduction; 
which will retard some cars more than others, and result 
in shocks and unnecessary strains on draw bars. This 
is one of the principal causes of wheel sliding. 

The correct operation of the brakes can only be se- 
cured by maintaining a uniform piston travel on all 
cars. The increase in the slack of brake rigging, due 
to the wearing away of brake shoes, must be constantly 
watched and taken up by means provided in the brake 
rigging, thereby maintaining the piston travel as nearly 
uniform as possible. By far the best means for accom- 
plishing this is to install, in all cases where possible, the 
Automatie Slack Adjuster. Where this is not done, 
proper inspection and adjustment must be made at suffi- 
ciently frequent intervals to prevent any material in- 
erease in piston travel. As this inspection and adjust- 
ment has to be made while the car or train is standing, it 
must be remembered that running travel in traction serv- 
ice is generally from 14” to 1” longer than standing 
travel, so that if a 5” running travel is desired, the stand- 
ing travel should be adjusted to about 4”. If the Auto- 


42 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


matic Slack Adjuster is used, its pipe should be connected 
with the brake cylinder at the hole located 534” from 
the pressure head. 

Piston travel should never be altered to obtain suffi- 
-eclent shoe clearance. This should be obtained by using 
a brake cylinder of proper size for the brake force to 
be developed, and through proper proportioning of the 
foundation brake gear. When inserting new shoes to 
replace those worn out, the brake slack should be let 
out first, and the piston travel adjusted properly after 
the new shoes are in place. 

All the piping should be so installed that there are no 
pockets in which moisture can collect and freeze in cold 
weather. Air strainers should be placed as closely as 
possible to the valves which they are intended to pro- 
tect. All cut-owt cocks should be placed where they can 
be easily reached, but protected from being closed acci- 
dentally. Handles should be in such a position that 
they would jar open instead of shut. Particular atten- 
tion should be paid to the location of the flexible hose 
connections and dummy-coupling chains, to avoid kink- 
ing or chafing of the hose. 


OPERATION OF THE EQUIPMENT. 


Charging. To charge the system, place .the brake 
valve handle in running position, at the extreme left and 
leave it there. 

Service. To make a service application of the brakes, 
place the brake valve handle in the intermediate service 
position, if the train is composed of only one or two ears, 
but in service position if more than two cars are being op- 
erated. When a sufficient reduction in brake-pipe pres- 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 43 


sure has been made to apply the brakes as required by 
the speed. condition of rail, grade, and kind of stop 
desired, move the handle back to lap position, where it 
should remain until it is desired either to release the 
brakes or to apply them with greater force. In the 
latter case, move the handle again to the service posi- 
tion previously used, further reducing the brake-pipe 
pressure until the desired result has been SEU then 
return it to lap position. 

A good motorman quickly acquires a knowledge of 
the amount of brake-pipe reduction necessary in any 
ease. The heavier the reduction, the harder the brakes 
are set. Moreover, the retarding effect of any given 
reduction is relatively greater at low, than at high 
speeds. To make a quick, smooth stop, therefore, from 
high speeds, make a brake pipe reduction of 18 to 20 
Ibs., and graduate the release of the brakes (as described 
later) as the speed of the car or train is reduced, so that 
at the end of the stop little or no pressure remains in 
the brake cylinder. In equipments where the brake 
eylinder exhaust is piped to the brake valve, never move 
the brake valve handle to lap position to release the 
brakes. 


RELEASING. 


In releasing the brakes after an application, three: 
things must be borne in mind: 

Ist. If the brake valve handle is placed in Release 
and Running Position, and left there, all brakes in the 
train will fully release. 

2nd. If the brake valve handle is placed in Release 
and Running Position for a moment, and then moved to 
Holding Position, the brakes on all cars except the oper- 


44 - ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


ator’s will release fully, but the brake on the operator’s 
car will not release (the brake cylinder exhaust being 
piped to the brake valve). 

3rd. If the brake valve handle is placed in Release 
and Running Position for a moment, and then moved to 
Lap Position, the brakes on all cars will graduate or 
partially release. 

A movement of the brake valve handle from Release 
and Running Position to Holding Position does one thing 
only, viz.: closes the brake cylinder exhaust port in the 
brake valve and prevents further escape of air from 
the brake cylinder to the atmosphere. This is the 
‘‘Straight-Air Release’’ feature and plainly applies to 
the operator’s car only. 

In releasing it must be remembered that for a given 
pressure in the brake cylinders, the brakes will stop the 
train quicker at low than at high speeds. Consequently, 
having a certain brake cylinder pressure at the com- 
mencement of a stop, which should be as high as the 
conditions already mentioned will allow, the pressure 
should be reduced as the speed decreases in order to 
keep the retarding effect of the brakes uniform. Other- 
wise the train’ will come to a stop with a jerk. The 
‘‘Graduated Release’’ feature enables the operator to 
take care of this very thing, and he soon becomes able 
to do this as the speed of the train diminishes so that 
the train comes to a standstill without any shock and at 
the point desired. 

Brake pipe reductions beyond the point of full appli- 
eation give no additional cylinder pressure, but do ma- 
terially lengthen the time required in which to release 
the brakes, on account of the time required to recharge 
the depleted brake pipe. From this it is clear, also, that 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 45 


if a graduated release is attempted after such an over- 
reduction, the handle may be moved to Release and Run- 
ning Position and returned to Lap Position without rais- 
ing the brake pipe pressure above that of the auxiliary 
reservoir. Therefore the triple valve piston does not go 
to release position, and there can be no graduation of 
the release. Over-reductions, therefore, waste air, are 
of no benefit, and interfere with the proper release of 
the brakes. As a brake pipe reduction of from 18 to 20 
Ibs. gives a full application of the brakes under normal 
conditions, this should be regarded as the limit. 


EMERGENCY POSITION. 


The emergency position of the brake valve should be 
used only when it is necessary to stop the car within the 
shortest possible distance to save life, or prevent acci- 
dent. In this position the port connecting the brake 
pipe to the atmosphere is much larger than in service 
position. The reduction in brake pipe pressure there- 
fore takes place suddenly, and the triple valve parts 
move to emergency position, with the result that the 
maximum cylinder pressure possible with the equipment 
is obtained quickly, and maintained until released by the 
motorman. 


PRACTICAL TRAIN TESTS. 


In preparing the car or train for service, and before 
making the following tests, follow carefully the rules 
given under the heading Charging: 

Test No. 1. When the system is charged, and the 
governor stops the compressor, apply the brakes in serv- 


46 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


ice from the head car, with a brake pipe reduction of 10 
lbs., indicated by the black hand of the duplex gauge, 
and return the handle to lap position. The brake in- 
spector should then proceed at once along the side of the 
train and note whether the push rod of each cylinder 
has moved out such a distance as to indicate that the 
brakes are properly applied on all cars. If any brake 
releases after the service application, examine all the 
cut-out cocks under the brake valves which are sup- 
posed to be cut out. Such a release is probably due to 
one of those cocks not being properly closed, a leak in 
the auxiliary reservoir, or its connections, or open auxili- 
ary reservoir drain cock. It may also be caused by a 
brake valve not being properly ‘‘lapped,’’ by a leaky 
rotary valve, by a leaky brake cylinder packing leather, 
by the piston travel being so short that the piston did 
not travel beyond the leakage groove, or a closed brake 
pipe or branch pipe cut-out cock may have prevented the 
brake from applying. If any improper operation is 
observed during this test it should be corrected before 
proceeding with the next test (See Test No. 5 in this 
connection ). 

Test No. 2. Following Test No. 1, after having noted 
that all the brakes in the train apply after a service 
reduction, release the brakes by placing the brake valve 
handle in Release and Running Position. Leaving the 
handle in Release and Running Position, the brake in- 
spector should again return along the side of the train 
to the rear car, examining all-push rods to see that they 
have moved back to ‘‘fuil release,’’ and that all brake 
shoes hang free from the wheels. Should any of the 
brakes fail to release or ‘‘stick,’? when the brake valve 
handle is placed in Release and Running Position, the 


AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 47 


trouble may be due to the feed valve not opening, to 
the cock in the brake cylinder exhaust pipe being closed, 
a brake valve not being properly lapped, or to a feed 
valve back of the operator’s car being set higher than 
that on the operator’s car, and a control pipe cut-out 
cock between the cars being closed. After having made 
sure that all of the cocks in the train are properly open, 
or closed, as the case may be, make a heavy brake pipe 
reduction, after which place the handle in release and 
running position. If a first or second trial of this does 
not succeed in releasing the brakes, the brake rigging, 
triple valve, piping, etc., should be examined in turn, 
and the trouble located. 

Test No. 3. With installations having the brake cyl- 
inder exhaust piped to the brake valve, a test should be 
made to insure that the brakes on the operating car 
will not release with the brake valve handle in holding 
position. Make about a 15 lb. service reduction and 
place the brake valve handle in holding position. All 
brakes in the train should now release, except those on 
the operating car. If its brake does release, there is 
probably a leak in the brake cylinder exhaust pipe, or 
the brake cylinder exhaust pipe cut-out cock at the other 
end of the car may be open. 

Test No. 4. While it is ordinarily safe to assume that 
the brakes will apply on an emergency application, pro- 
vided they apply satisfactorily in the service Test No. 1, 
yet the brakes should occasionally be tested by making 
an emergency application with the brake valve, and also 
with the conductor’s valve, in order to make sure that 
no obscure causes exist which would interfere with this 
most important function of the system. 

Test No. 5. If it is observed or suspected that an 


48 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


emergency application of the brake is obtained on any 
car in the train, when only a service application is in- 
tended, the following test should be made to locate the 
improperly acting triple valve: 

After permitting the system to charge up to full 
pressure, make a service reduction, not exceeding 7 lbs., 
and place the brake valve handle in Release and Running 
Position. If any brake in the train takes a noticeably 
longer time to release, and exhausts with more noise than 
the others, it is the offender. 


HINTS TO MOTORMEN. 
CUTTING OUT BRAKES. 


It is very important not to cut out the brake on any 
car unless it is absolutely impossible to operate it safely. 
Small leaks are not sufficient cause for thus reducing 
the braking power on the train as a whole. After cut- 
ting out the brake on any ear (by closing the double 
cut-out cock in the branch pipes) release its brake by 
opening the auxiliary reservoir bleed cock, and leaving 
it open. 


SWITCHING CARS. 


In setting cars out of a train, first close the brake pipe, 
and control pipe cut-out cocks, separate the hose 
couplings by hand, and attach the dummy couplings. 
Never allow the hose couplings to be jerked apart by the 
separation of the cars, since this inevitably resuits in 
defective hose, and consequently in very unsatisfactory 
brake operation. In setting the hand brake on the ear 
set out of the train, be sure that the air brake has been 
released. The foundation brake rigging on some ears is 
so constructed that the hand and power brakes pull in 
opposite directions. It therefore follows that if the hand 
brake on such cars is set while the air brake is applied, 
both brakes will be released, when the brake cylinder 
pressure leaks off. 

49 


50 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


UNEXPECTED BRAKE APPLICATIONS. 


Such applications may be due to the use of the con- 
ductor’s valve, the train breaking in two, a bursted hose, 
or other rupture in the piping. In such event the motor- 
man should at once place his brake valve handle in lap 
position. This prevents the escape of control pipe, and 
main reservoir pressure, and enables prompt release of 
the brakes when the signal is given to go ahead. 


CONDUCTOR’S VALVE. 


Should the eonductor find it necessary to set the 
brakes, the cord or handle of the conductor’s valve 
should be pulled down as far as possible and held until 
the train stops. This valve must be closed, of course, 
before signalling the motorman to go ahead; otherwise 
brake pipe pressure will continue to escape and the 
brakes cannot be released. 


RAIL SANDING. 


Whenever it is necessary to sand the rails this should 
be done, if practicable, before the brakes are applied, 
for the reason that if the brakes are set and the wheels 
begin to slide, the application of sand will—in all prob- 
ability—-prevent their revolving again, and flat spots 
are almost sure to result. In such an event the best 
practice is to release the brakes slightly at the moment 
of applying the sand, after which a much higher brake 
eylinder pressure can be used without causing the wheels 
to slide. If sand is used, the rails should be well and 
continuously sanded until the stop is made, or the brakes 
released. 


HINTS TO MOTORMEN 51 


REVERSING MOTORS. 


Ordinarily the car motors should never be reversed 
while the brakes are applied, on account of the danger 
of locking the wheels, and thereby increasing the length 
of the stop. As a last resort, however, the motors may be 
reversed to prevent a collision or save life. In such a 
crisis use plenty of sand, especially on a bad rail. The 
motors may also be reversed if the brakes are disabled. 


BRAKE PIPE RUPTURE. 


Should the brake pipe hose burst, or other rupture 
occur in the brake pipe, rendering the brakes in the rear 
thereof inoperative, the hand brakes on such disabled 
ears should be tested, and someone assigned to use them 
if necessary to control the train. Close the brake pipe 
cut-out cock on the end of the car just ahead of the 
point of rupture, release the brakes, and proceed with 
the train as usual; operating the available brakes at the 
head end of the train until the damage can be repaired. 
Where it is possible, protection against further rupture 
of hose, or break-in-two of the train back of the first 
break may be easily secured by simply placing one of 
the brake valve handles on that section of the train in 
release position. This fully charges the section of the 
train back of the closed angle cocks, thus insuring an 
automatic emergency application of the brakes on that 
section, should its brake pipe or hose become ruptured 
from any cause. 


52 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


CONTROL PIPE HOSE BURSTING. 


Close the control pipe cut-out cocks immediately ahead 
of and behind the defective hose and proceed with the 
train as before. 

BRANCH PIPE RUPTURE. 


Should a branch pipe break between the triple valve 
and the double cut-out cock, close the double cut-out 
cock, release the brakes on that car by opening the auxili- 
ary reservoir bleed cock, and proceed as usual. 

If the break occurs between the double cut-out cock 
and the brake pipe, close both the control pipe and brake 
pipe cut-out cocks at the front end of the disabled ear, 
release all brakes in the rear by opening the auxiliary 
reservoir bleed cocks, and proceed with the train, oper- 
ating the head brakes as before. 


GENERAL HINTS. 


To gain time, adapt the brake pipe reduction, or ap- 
pleation of brakes, to speed. For example, for high 
speed make a full application and graduate off when a 
short distance from the stop. To handle the train 
smoothly, make application heavy and soon enough, so 
that if held on, the train would stop a ear length or so 
short of the mark. Then as the stop or mark is ap- 
proached, graduate the pressure out of the brake eylin- 
der so that little remains when stop is made. If on a 
level, complete the release; if on a grade, hold until 
the signal to start is given, then release. As the pres- 
sure has been graduated down so that little remains in 
the cylinder, it will be seen that the start can be made 
promptly. 


HINTS TO MOTORMEN 53 


TRIPLE VALVE. 


A separate pipe bracket or brake cylinder head is in- 
cluded in the equipment to which all pipe connections 
to the triple valve are permanently made. It is there- 
fore known as a ‘‘pipeless’’ triple valve. No pipe con- 
nections need to be disturbed in order to remove the 
valve, the loosening of three nuts being all that is re- 
quired. Care should be taken in locating the valve to 
have it free from obstructions which would render in- 
spection or removal difficult, and that it is as far as pos- 
sible above the general level of the piping so that no 
pockets are formed in the latter. If this point does 
not receive proper attention, trouble may be experienced 
in cold weather from the freezing of water in the pipes 
or valve itself. Under ordinary service conditions the 
triple valve should be thoroughly cleaned and lubricated 
once in three months. The proper interval is best de- 
termined for each particular case by a careful inspec- 
tion and trial. Where conditions are severe and the 
triple valve exposed to extremes of weather, dirt and 
so on, more frequent inspections will, no doubt, be found 
necessary. Where the valve is protected and not sub- 
jected to hard usage, the interval may be lengthened. 
The use of heavy grease, or other lubricant which will 
‘‘oum’’ and cause the valve to work stiff, or clog the 
ports, should be avoided. Too light a lubricant or one 
that does not possess sufficient ‘‘body,’’ is not satisfac- 
tory, as it will not thoroughly lubricate the parts or last 
as long as necessary. Special lubricants made for this 
purpose will be found the most satisfactory. 

Never remove the movable parts of the triple valve 
while it is on the car. If the valve is not working 


54 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


properly, or needs cleaning and oiling, take it down 
and replace it by a valve in good condition, and have 
all cleaning and oiling done at a bench, by a competent 
man and where liability of damage to the internal parts 
of the valve is least. Any attempt to take the triple 
valve apart while still on the car is almost sure to re- 
sult in a large percentage of valves being injured by 
careless handling, or dirt getting inside the pipes or 
valve. Before installing the triple valve, all the pipiig 
should be thoroughly hammered and blown out, in order 
to loosen and remove all pipe scale or foreign matter. 
This is especially important in new installations. 
After the installation is complete, all the joints should 
be thoroughly tested under pressure with soap-suds and 
made air tight. 


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON THE AUTO- 
MATIC BRAKE SYSTEM. 


1. Q. What was the first form of air brake called? 

A. The straight air brake. 

2. Q. How does the air apply the brake? 

A. By being admitted to the brake cylinder, and 
forcing the piston out, which, by means of connecting 
rods and levers, pulls the brake shoes against the wheels. 

3. Q. How is the brake released? 

A. By allowing air in the brake cylinder to escape 
to the atmosphere. The release springs on the trucks 
then force the brake rigging back, and the shoes leave 
the wheels. 

4. Q. Name the principal parts of a straight air 
brake. 

A. Electric switches, fuse block, governor, compres- 
sor, main reservoir, operating valves and brake cylinder. 

5. Q. What controls the amount of air pressure in 
the main reservoir ? 

A. The governor. 

6. @. Where is the governor connected electrically ? 

A. In the compressor circuit, between the fuse and 
the compressor. 

7. Q@. What does the governor do? 

A. It allows current to flow to the compressor until 
a predetermined pressure is reached in the main reser- 
voir, when it automatically breaks the circuit and thus 
euts off the current from the compressor, 


ahs) 


56 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


8. Q. How much difference should there be between 
cutting in and cutting out pressures? 

A. Fifteen pounds. 

9. Q. Name the pipe connections to the operating 
valve, used with the straight air brake? 

A. Main reservoir, brake cylinder, and exhaust. 

10. Q. In applying the straight air brake, where 
does the air go? 

A. From the main reservoir through the operating 
valve to the brake cylinder. 

11. Q. In releasing this brake, where does the air 
go to? 

A. From the brake cylinder through the operating 
valve to the exhaust. 

12. @. What parts are essential on a car equipped 
with automatic brakes in addition to those named for 
a straight air brake? 

A. A triple valve, feed valve and auxiliary reservoir. 

13. Q. Why is such a brake called an automatic 
brake? 

A. Because it will apply the brakes automatically 
by any reduction of the brake pipe pressure, no matter 
how it is caused. 

14. @. What part of the brake equipment causes 
this action? 

A. The triple valve. 

15. Q. Where does the air come from that goes to 
the brake cylinder in the automatic application? 

A. The auxiliary reservoir. 

16. Q. Is the Westinghouse brake equipment known 
as schedule AMM a straight air or automatic brake? 

A. Automatic. 


AIR BRAKE CATECHISM 57 


17. Q. How many pipes are connected to the brake 
valve with this equipment? 

A. Four. 

18. Q. What are they? 

A. Brake pipe, control pipe, brake elites exhaust 
pipe, and brake valve exhaust pipe. 

19. Q. From the brake valve, where does the brake 
pipe lead to? 

A. The brake pipe is continuous throughout the 
length of the car, connecting to the triple valve under 
the car and has hose connections at the terminals for 
the purpose of connecting it to other cars. 

20. @. From the brake valve, where does the control 
pipe lead to? 

A. The same as the brake pipe. 

21. Q@. Follow the air from the compressor to the 
auxiliary reservoir. 

A. From the compressor to the main reservoir, then 
through the feed valve to the control pipe which leads 
to the brake valves and triple valve. From the brake 
valve through the brake pipe to the triple valve and 
through two ports in the triple valve to the auxiliary 
reservoir. There is also a port in the triple valve 
through which air passes direct from the control pipe to 
the auxiliary reservoir. 

22. Q@. What three particular advantages does the 
control pipe provide? 

A. Quick recharge, graduated release and high Bees 
sure in emergency. 

23. Q. What are the principal working parts of the 
type M triple valve? 

A. The triple piston, slide valve, graduating valve 
and by-pass valve. 


58 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


24. Q. What are the different operating positions 
of the triple valve? 

A. Release and charging position, quick service po- 
sition, full service position, service lap position, gradu- 
ated release lap position, and emergency position. 

25. Q. What are the positions of the brake valve? 

A. Release, holding, lap, intermittent service, and 
emergency. 

26. Q. Trace the port openings, with the triple valve 
in release and charging position. 

A. Referring to Figs. 5 and 6, air releases from the 
brake cylinder through z, n, w, m and p, to the brake 
eylinder exhaust pipe which leads to the brake valve. 
At the same time the auxiliary is being recharged from 
the brake pipe through a, e, c, f, g, h and 7, and through 
x, y and k. 

27. Q. In what position is the brake valve handle 
with the triple in release and charging position ? 

A. It may be in holding or release position. 

28. Q. Will the air in the brake cylinder exhaust 
to the atmosphere with the triple valve in release and 
charging position? 

A. Not unless the brake valve handle is in running 
position. 

29. Q. Why does not release take place with the 
brake valve on holding position ? 

A. Because the connection between the brake cylin- 
der exhaust pipe, and brake valve exhaust pipe is closed. 

30. Q. What is the purpose of the holding position 
of the brake valve? 

A. To provide straight air release on the ear on which 
the brake valve is being operated. 

31. Q. What pressures are in the control pipe, brake 


AIR BRAKE CATECHISM 59 


pipe and auxiliary reservoir when the triple valve is in 
release and charging position ? 

A. If it has been in this position long enough for 
the air to release from the brake eylinder, they are all 
equally charged to 70 pounds, or whatever the feed valve 
is set for. 

32. Q. How is the triple valve changed from release 

and charging position to quick service position ? 
_A. By reducing the pressure in chamber slowly, 
which is the brake pipe pressure side of the triple piston. 
The auxiliary reservoir pressure, which is on the opposite 
side of the piston, moves the piston slide valve and grad- 
uating valve in the direction of the weaker pressure to 
the quick service position. 

33. Q. What then takes place? 

A. Air passes from the auxilary reservoir through 
ports z and r to the brake cylinder, until the auxiliary 
reservoir pressure has dropped slightly below the brake 
pipe pressure, which, being now the greater pressure, 
causes the triple piston to move carrying the graduating 
valve with it until it strikes the slide valve and the 
graduating valve covers port z, cutting off the flow of 
air from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder, as 
shown in Fig. 9. 

34. Q. What is done to cause the triple to move to 
quick service position ? 

A. The brake valve is moved to the proper service 
position to cause a slow reduction of the brake pipe pres- 
sure which is shown by the black hand of the gauge. 

35. Q. What is done to cause the geil valve to 
move to full service position ? 

A. The brake valve is moved to the proper service 


60 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


position to cause a more rapid reduction of the brake 
pipe pressure. 

36. Q@. What is the difference between the quick 
service and full service position of the brake valve? 

A. On account of the brake pipe reduction being 
more rapid, the auxiliary reservoir pressure forces the 
piston, slide valve and graduating valve farther, so that 
a full opening through port z in the slide valve and port 
r to the brake eylinder has been made, which allows the 
air to flow from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake 
eylinder more rapidly. 

37. Q. What is the purpose of the quick service 
feature? 

A. It allows a further reduction of the brake pipe 
pressure after the brake valve has been returned from 
making a slow reduction (intermittent service position 
on a single ear) to lap position, by a passage from the 
brake pipe through check valve 9, port y, 0, v, q and 1, 
to the brake cylinder. 

38. Q. What position of the triple valve allows this 
action ? 

A. Quick service position only. 

39. Q. What causes the triple valve to move from 
release position to emergency position? 

A. Any sudden reduction of the brake pipe pressure 
due to the conductor’s valve being opened, or a hose or 
brake pipe being ruptured, or the valve handle being 
slaced on the emergency position. 

40. Q. Trace the port openings of the triple valve 
in emergency position. 

A. Air flows from the auxiliary reservoir through 
sorts 1 and r to the brake cylinder. Air also flows from 
the auxiliary reservoir through ports s and ¢ to the face 


AIR BRAKE CATECHISM 61 


of the by-pass valve piston 13, forcing the by-pass valve 
open, allowing the air to flow from the control pipe 
through «x, r, r, and r, to the brake cylinder. 

41. Q. Is the pressure obtained in the brake eylin- 
der by an emergency application any greater than by a 
service application ? 

A. Yes. 

42. Q. How much? 

A. About 30 per cent. 

43. Q. Why? 

A. On account of the additional pressure being pres- 
sure received from the control pipe. 

44. Q. What is meant by saying the brake is fully 
applied? 

A. That full brake cylinder pressure has been ob- 
tained in either service or emergency application. 

45. Q. How do the auxiliary reservoir and brake 
eylinder pressures then stand, compared with each other? 

A. Equal. 

46. Q. How much must the brake cylinder pressure 
be reduced to produce this? 

A. About twenty pounds. 

47. Q. After the brake is fully applied, will a fur- 
ther reduction of the brake pipe pressure be of any 
benefit ? 

A. No. 

48. Q. What will be the result of reducing the brake 
pipe pressure more than necessary to fully apply the 
brakes ? 

A. It will waste air, and cause the release to be 
delayed in proportion to the amount of the over re- 
duction. 


62 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


49. Q. In order to release the brakes what must be 
done? 

A. The brake pipe must be recharged, as soon as 
brake pipe pressure exceeds auxillary reservoir pres- 
sure, the triple valve will be forced to release position. 

50. Q. How is graduated release at the triple valve 
obtained ? 

A. By allowing the brake pipe to only partially re- 
charge, then quickly return the brake valve from release 
position to lap. 

dl. Q. Trace the connections in the triple valve 
when graduated release takes place. 

A. The brake pipe pressure is increased slightly above 
the auxiliary pressure, forcing the triple valve to release 
position, allowing the air to discharge from the brake 
eylinder through ports, r, n, w, m and p. At the same 
time the auxiliary reservoir is being recharged from the 
control pipe through « and k, and from the brake pipe 
through a, e, c, f, g, h and 7, and through check valve 
9, y, j and n. The auxilary reservoir is thus recharged 
while the air exhausts from the brake cylinder. Then 
when the auxilary reservoir pressure is increased slightly 
above the brake pipe pressure the piston and graduating 
valve are forced to graduated release lap position, shown 
in Fig. 10, and all connections are blanked, the exhaust 
from the brake cylinder and the auxiliary reservoir re- 
eharging ports being closed. 

52. Q. How may further graduations be obtained? 

A. By additional increases of the brake pipe pressure 
according to the amount of air it is desired to release. 

53. @. When is it desirable to graduate the release 
of the brakes.as just described? 

A, When operating two or more motor ears in a train, 


AIR BRAKE CATECHISM 63 


54. Q. Can a motor and trailer car both be released 
in this manner? 

A. Yes, if there is a control hose line between the 
ears in addition to the brake pipe hose connection. 

do. Q. How is graduated release obtained with a 
motor car alone or with a motor car and trailer without 
the control line connection between the cars? 

A. By moving the brake valve handle to release posi- 
tion and returning it to holding position to retain any 
desired amount in the brake cylinder. 

56. @. What pressure is always carried in the con- 
trol pipe? 

A. Seventy pounds or whatever pressure the feed 
valve is set for. 

57. @. What will cause the brakes to set without the 
brake valve handle being moved from release position ? 

A. The conductor’s valve being opened. 

58. Q. What should the motorman do when the 
brakes are thus applied by the conductor? 

A. Place the brake valve handle on lap position and 
hold it there until car stops. 

59. @. What else will cause the brakes to set with- 
out movement of the brake valve handle? 

A. The rupture of the main reservoir piping, the 
eontrol pipe, or brake pipe, or any of the hose con- 
nections. They will also set if compressor stops, on 
account of any trouble in the electric circuit. 

60. Q. In what position may the triple valve be 
with the brake valve on lap position ? 

A. If the brake valve has been moved to lap from 
release position, the triple valves will be in lap positions. 

61. Q. Should the car or train if running have the 
power applied with the brake valve on lap position ? 

A. No. 


64 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


62. Q. How should the brakes be tested before start- 
ing with a single car? 

A. Place a handle on the valve to be operated, and 
move it to release position, and open the cut-out cocks 
immediately under it. Close all the cut-out cocks under 
the brake valve at the other end of the car. See that 
the cut-out cocks are closed at the hose terminals, and the 
double cut-out cock near the triple valve is open. See 
that the drain cocks in the main and auxiliary reser- 
voirs are closed. Then start the compressor and wait 
until full air pressure is pumped up. When this is 
done apply the brakes fully by making a reduction of 
twenty pounds in the brake pipe pressure. 

63. @. What then should be done? 

A. Inspect the brakes to see that they apply prop- 
erly. 

64. Q. What should be looked for? 

A. To see that the brake shoes are firmly against the 
wheels and the piston travel is not over 414” and not 
less than 4”. The brakes should then be released. 

65. Q. What should be done after releasing the 
brakes? 

A. See that the piston returns in the cylinder, and 
the shoes leave the wheels. 

66. Q. When two or more ears are coupled together 
in a train what preparation should be made for testing 
brakes ? 

A. All hose couplings between the cars should be 
coupled, and the cut-out cocks near the hose terminals 
all opened except those at the front and rear ends of the 
train. All drain cocks should be closed. All the brake 
valves except the one being operated should have the 
handles removed, leaving these valves in lap position. 


AIR BRAKE CATECHISM 65 


The cut-out cocks in the brake pipe under all valves 
except the one being operated should be closed. The 
cut-out cocks in the brake cylinder exhaust pipe should 
be open under all valves, except the one at the opposite 
end of the car which is being operated. See that the 
double cut-out cock near the triple valve on each end is 
open, then allow the pressure to pump up full, and test 
as with a single car. 


67. @. What should be looked for in case the brakes 
cannot be applied by the brake valve? 

A. First see that the cut-out cocks under the brake 
valves are open. .Next see that the double cut-out cock 
near the triple valve is open. 

68. Q. What is the best method of making a stop 
with a brake of this type? 

A. After the controller has been moved to ‘‘off’’ 
position, make a heavy service reduction in the brake 
pipe pressure, then as the ear or train slows down, grad- 
uate the brakes off so that by the time the stop is made 
there will be a very light pressure in the brake cylin- 
ders. 

69. Q. When inspecting the cars at the car barn. 
what should be done to the pump governor? 

A. See that it is adjusted to cut in at 85 pounds, and 
eut out at 100 pounds. 

70. Q. What will happen if the cutting in pressure 
is too low? 

A. Blowing the whistle may set the brakes. The 
brakes may fail to release after a hght application has 
been made. 

71. Q. What attention should be given to the feed 
valve? 

A. It should be adjusted for 70 pounds pressure, 


66 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


using a test gauge if there are motor cars working to- 
gether in a train, so that all the valves will have the same 
adjustment. | 

72. @. What will happen if they are not adjusted 
alike? 

A. The car having the one with the lowest setting 
will have to supply more air than the others, especially 
when there is a control pipe connection between the cars. 

73. @. What will happen if the feed valve feeds up 
or overcharges the system? 

A. The brakes will set when blowing the whistle and 
fail to release promptly, or it may be impossible to re- 
lease when a brake application has been made. 

74. Q. What should be done when this occurs? 

A. If the brakes will not release after making a 
heavy reduction, or returning the brake valve handle to 
release; drain the auxiliary reservoir, and proceed .to 
where the defective feed valve may be replaced. 

75. Q. What should be looked for in the feed valve, 
if on making a light brake application, the brakes do not 
release? 

A. The feed valve is sluggish due to lack of lubri- 
-eation, and the brake pipe pressure does not increase 
properly when the brake valve is returned to running 
position. 

76. Q. How often should a feed valve, and triple 
valve be oiled? 

A. Once a month. 

77. Q. What lubricant should be used? 

A. Marvin’s Anti-Friction Triple Valve Oil is the 
best. 

78. Q. What care should be used in oiling these 
parts? 


AIR BRAKE CATECHISM 67 


A. In removing the piston and slide valve they should 
be handled with extreme care so as to prevent the sur- 
faces being serateched or dented, causing them to leak. 
The valves, seats, piston and eylinder should be carefully 
wiped with a clean cotton cloth, and a small amount 
of oil put on these parts. 


79. Q. How often should a brake valve be oiled? 

A. Onee every month. 

80. @. What may be wrong if the brakes set when 
the brake valve handle is moved from release to lap 
position ? 

A. ‘There may be a leak in the brake pipe. 

81. Q. What is the result when the brake shoes are 
adjusted so close that the piston will not travel 4” with 
the brakes fully set? 

A. The brake applications will be too severe, and a 
hght brake application may not make enough reduction 
to cause the feed valve to open and, consequently the 
brakes stick. 

82. Q. What is the result when there is too much 
shoe clearance making a long piston travel? 

A. The brakes will be too slow in applying and re- 
leasing, and the maximum cylinder pressure will be low- 
ered. There will be, also, an excessive waste of air, caus- 
ing the compressor considerable undue work. 

83. Q. How should the brake cylinder be tested for 
a leaky leather ? 

A. Make a full application and return the brake 
valve handle to lap position, and measure the piston 
travel. Note the brake pipe pressure to see that it does 
not build up and release the brakes. If at the end of 
15 minutes the piston has not moved more than 14” the 
packing leather may be considered tight. 


68 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


84. Q. What test would be made to determine 
whether there is a leak in the brake cylinder exhaust 
pipe? 

A. After making test in answer to question No. 83, if 
this shows no leak, make a full application and return 
the brake valve to holding position and allow it to stand 
there 15 minutes and note whether the piston moves more 
than 14’, and if it does not the brake cylinder packing 
leather, and exhaust pipe are both tight. 

85. Q. Which of the above tests is most important? 

A. The latter, because the brake valve handle should 
be left on holding position to hold a ear. 

86. Q. How often should this test be made at the car 
barn? 

A. Once a month. 

87. Q. How often should brake cylinder packing 
leathers be greased ? 

A. Once every six months. 

88. Q. How should brake cylinder packing leathers 
be lubricated ? 

A. Remove the piston from the cylinder and put a 
thin coating of grease on the cylinder wall near the pres- 
sure head. 

89. Q. Why should not oil be used? 

A. Because it runs to the lower part of the cylinder, 
making the leather soft at that point. If oil is used it is 
usually put in by removing a plug in the pressure head, 
and an excessive amount put in which carries dirt and 
erit into the triple valve. 

90. Q. If the brake pipe pressure increases after a 
reduction has been made with the brake valve handle on 
lap position, what should be looked for? 

A. The brake valve should be examined to see if the 


AIR BRAKE CATECHISM 69 


rotary valve seats properly and is not dirty, as this 
trouble may be caused by a leak under the rotary valve. 

91. Q. What attention should be given to the motor- 
driven air compressor ? 

A. It should be lubricated regularly with a good 
quality of oil (Artic Ammonia oil or some equally as 
good) and when oiling the compressor part, extreme care 
should be used to make sure that this oil fitting is filled, 
and remains full after oil has been poured in. The com- 
mutator should be kept clean. If there is any knocking, 
the lost motion in the connecting rods should be taken up. 

92. Q. What attention should be given to the suc- 
tion and discharge valves in the compressor ? 

A. They should be cleaned once a month. 

93. Q. What is the reason ordinary oil is not satis- 
factory to use in air compressors? 

A. When air is compressed, excessive heat is pro- 
duced, which destroys the lubricating quality of oil not 
made expressly for this purpose. 

94. Q. If oil is running out of the holes near the 
bottom of the motor, what should be done? 

A. This is due to the overflow drain on the chamber 
between the pinion and armature bearing, and the bottom 
of the gear case being closed. This should be cleaned 
out. 

95. Q. Of what does the equipment of a trailer car 
consist ? 

A. An auxiliary reservoir, brake cylinder, triple 
valve, double cut-out, check valve and strainer, conduc- 
tor’s valve, brake and control pipes. 

96. Q. In what respect does a trailer car differ from 
a motor car? 


70 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


A. It has no brake valves, alarm whistle, air com- 
pressor, governor, or main reservoir. 

97. Q. Where should the air compressor be located 
on a motor car? 

A. Near the side of the ear. 

98. @. Why are two main reservoirs used ? 

A. For the purpose of storing an abundant supply of 
alr for promptly releasing and recharging the system. 

99. @. Where should the main reservoir be located? 

A. <As low and as near the side of the car as possible, 
in order to keep the stored air cool. 

100. Q. What is the function of the air strainer? 

A. To prevent dirt or other foreign matter from en- 
tering the pipe. 

101. Q. At what range is the electric pump governor 
usually set? 

A. Fifteen pounds; that is, cutting-in pressure, 85 
pounds, and cutting-out pressure, 100 pounds. 


102. Q. How should the wiring be installed? 

A. In as thorough a manner as possible, care being 
taken to avoid all possibility of grounds developing. 

103. Q. Where should the compressor switches be 
located ? 

A. One at each end of the car, within easy reach of 
the motorman. 

104. @. Where should the fuse box be located? 

A. Between the last compressor switch and the gov- 
CNPK ONG. 

105. Q@. At what pressure is the safety valve set? 

A. One hundred and ten pounds. 

106. Q. At what pressure is the feed valve usually 
set? 

A. It is set to maintain a pressure of 70 pounds. 


AIR BRAKE CATECHISM gal 


107. @. Where should the duplex air gauge be in- 
stalled ? 

A. In the direct line of vision of the motorman while 
running over the road. 

108. @. What type of valve is the brake valve? 

A. It is of the rotary type. 

109. Q. Name the different positions of the brake 
valve handle, and the function of each. 

A. Release and running, in which air from the con- 
trol pipe flows directly to the brake pipe. Holding posi- 
tion, in which air from the control still flows into the 
brake pipe, but the exhaust from brake cylinder is shut. 
Lap position, in which all ports in the valve are blanked, 
except the brake cylinder exhaust port. Intermediate 
service, in which connection is made from brake pipe to 
atmosphere through a smaller opening. Service posi- 
tion, in which connection is made from brake pipe to 
atmosphere through a larger openirig. Emergency, in 
which a much larger opening is made from brake pipe 
to atmosphere. 

110. @. To where does the brake pipe extend after 
leaving the brake valve? 

A. Throughout the train, similar to the control pipe. 

111. Q. Where may the conductor’s valve be placed ? 

A. At any convenient point in the car. 

112. °Q. What occurs when this valve is opened? 

A. The air in brake pipe flows directly through it 
to the atmosphere, thus setting the brake. . 

113. Q. What is the function of the double cut-out 
cock in the branch and control pipes? 

A. To open or close both these pipes at the same time. 

114. Q. Where should the triple valve be attached? 

A. Either to the cylinder head, to a bracket under- 
neath the car, or to a stand inside the car. 


vhs ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


115. Q. Where should the auxiliary reservoir be lo- 
cated ? 

A. As near the triple valve as possible. 

116. Q. What is its volume relative to that of the 
brake cylinder? 

A. Its volume is such that when charged to 70 pounds 
it will equalize with the brake cylinder at 50 pounds 
pressure. : 

117. Q. What is required of the movement of the 
brake gear? 

A. It should be free from binding or undue friction. 

118. Q. Deseribe the arrangement by which the 
brakes may be set by hand when necessary ? 

A. The piston in the brake cylinder has a hollow rod 
in which is a solid push rod. 

119. Q. How is the brake cylinder piston packed ? 

A. With leather packing. 

120. Q. What is the best lubricant for the inside of 
brake cylinder? 

A. <A light grease gives the best results. 

121. Q. What should the travel of the piston be? 

A. It should be adjusted to 4 inches. 

122. @. What is the result if the piston travel is too 
short? 

A. A high braking power will be obtained when only 
a low braking power is desired. 

123. Q. What results when the piston travel is too 
long? 

A. <A proper braking power is not obtained for a 
given reduction. 

124. Q. What is the result when some brake eylin- 
ders in a train have long piston travel and others short ? 

A. A very uneven braking power will be developed 


AIR BRAKE CATECHISM 73 


for a given reduction, which will retard some cars more 
than others. 

125. Q. How then may a correct operation of the 
train brakes be secured? 

A. By maintaining a uniform piston travel on all 
ears. 

126. Q. What is the function of the automatic slack 
adjuster ? 

A. To take up the slack in the brake rigging and 
thereby maintain the piston travel as nearly uniform as 
possible. 

127. Q. How should the piping be installed? 

A. In such a manner that there will be no pockets in 
which moisture can collect. 

128. Q. Where should the air strainers be located? 

A. As close as possible to the valves they are intended 
to protect. 

129. Q. In what position should the brake valve 
handle be to charge the system ? 

A. In running position at the extreme left. 

130. Q. Where should the brake valve handle be 
placed to make a service application? 

A. In intermediate service position if for one or two 
cars, but in service position if more than two cars are 
being operated. 

131. Q. What three things must be remembered in 
releasing the brakes ? 

A. Ist. If the brake valve handle is placed in re- 
lease and running position and left there, all brakes in 
the train will be released. 2d. If the brake valve is left 
in above position only for a moment, and then moved 
to holding position, the brakes on all cars except the 
operator’s will release. 3d. If the brake valve is placed 


74: ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


in release and running position for a moment and then 
moved to lap, the brakes on all cars will graduate or 
partially release. 

132. Q. If the brake valve handle be moved from 
release and running position to holding position, what 
takes place? 

A. The brake cylinder exhaust port is closed. 

133. Q. How may the train be brought to a stop with- 
out a jerk? 

A. By means of the graduated release, viz., allowing 
the pressure to be reduced, as the speed decreases. 

134. @. What are some of the disadvantages of 
over-reduction of pressure in making an application? 

A. A waste of air and interference with graduated 
release. 

135. Q. What should be the ordinary reduction in 
making an application of the brakes? 

A. From 18 to 20 pounds. 

136. Q. When should the emergency position of the 
brake valve be used? 

A. Only when it is necessary to stop the ear within 
the shortest possible distance. 

37. @. In making test No. 1 what reduction of 
pressure is made? 

A. Ten pounds, as indicated by the black hand of 
uge. <All of the brakes should then be set. 

138. Q. How is test No: 2. made? 

A. Followme test No. 1, place the brake valve handle 
in release and running position. This should fully re- 
lease all brakes. 

139. Q. What is the object of test No. 3? 

A. To insure that the brakes on the operator’s car 
will not release with the brake valve handle in holding 
position. 


ra 


AIR BRAKE CATECHISM TD 


140. Q. What reduction is required in test No. 3? 

A. About 15 pounds, then place handle in holding po- 
sition. 

141. Q. What should now take place? 

A. All brakes in the train should now release, except 
those on the operating car. 

142. Q. How is test No. 4 made? 

A. By placing the brake valve handle in emergency 
position, and also using the conductor’s valve. 

143. Q. What is the object of test No. 5? 

A. To ascertain whether an emergency application 
takes place on any ear, when only a service application 
was intended. 

144. .Q. What should be done in cutting out a brake 
on a car? 

A. Close the double cut-out cock, then open the aux- 
iliary reservoir bleed cock, and leave it open. 


145. Q. What precautions should be observed in 
switching, or setting cars out of train? 

A. Always separate the hose couplings by hand, and 
be sure that the air brake is released before setting the 
brakes by hand. 

146. Q. If an unexpected application of the brakes 
should occur, caused by the train breaking in two, or a 
conductor’s valve being used, what should be done? 

A. The brake valve handle should be at onee placed 
in lap position. 

147. @. How should the conductor’s valve be used? 

A. The cord or handle of the valve should be pulled 
down as far as possible, and held until the train stops. 

148. Q. Give the proper method of sanding the rails? 

A. If practicable the sand should be applied before 
the brakes are set. 


76 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


149. Q. Why? 

A. Because if the brakes are first set, and the wheels 
begin to slide, the application of sand will then prevent 
their revolving again, thus causing flat spots. 

150. Q. How may this generally be prevented ? 

A. Slightly release the brakes at the moment of ap- 
plying the sand. 

151. Q. Should the motors be reversed while the 
brakes are applied? ; 

A. No, as there is danger of locking the wheels by 
doing this. 

152. Q. As a last resort what may be done? 

A. Reverse the motors, and use plenty of sand. 

153. Q. In ease of bursted hose, or rupture in the 
train pipe occur on any car, what should be done? 

A. Close the brake pipe cut-out cock on the end of 
the car ahead of the point of rupture, and assign some 
one to use the hand brakes on the disabled cars. 

154. Q. In ease of control pipe hose bursting what 
must be done? 

A. ‘Close the control pipe cut-out cocks immediately 
ahead of and behind the defective hose, and proceed 
with train? 

155. Q. Should a branch pipe break between triple 
valve and double cut-out cock what must be done? 

A. Close double cut-out cock and release the brakes 
on that car? 

156. @. If the break in branch pipe occurs between 
the double eut-out cock and brake pipe what should be 
done? | 
A. Close both the control pipe and brake pipe cut- 
out cocks at the front end of the disabled ear, release all 


AIR BRAKE CATECHISM aye 


brakes in the rear by opening auxiliary reservoir bleed 
cocks, and proceed. 

157. Q. What precautions should be observed in 
locating the triple valve? 

A. To have it free from obstructions, so that it may 
be easily inspected or removed. 

158. @. How often should this valve be cleaned and 
oiled? 

A. Ordinarily, once in three months. 

159. Q. Is it a good plan to take the triple valve 
apart while it is on the car? 

A. It is not. This work should be done by a com- 
petent man at the shop bench. 

160. Q. Before installing the triple valve what 
should be done with the piping? 

A. It should be hammered and blown out in order to 
clean it. 

161. Q. After installation is complete what test 
should ke made? 

A. All of the joints should be thoroughly tested un- 
der pressure with soapsuds, and made airtight. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE. 


In order that the student may clearly understand the 
difference between the straight air brake system, and the 
automatic air system (which has already been described) 
the following simple comparison of the two systems is 
presented : 

In the automatic air system there is an auxiliary reser- 
voir in close proximity to the brake cylinder on each 
ear. Between the brake cylinder and the auxiliary 
reservoir is placed a triple valve; all the triple valves on 
a train are connected to each other and to the motor- 
man’s valve on the motor car through the train line. The 
triple valve is operated by a reduction of pressure in the 
train line, which is accomplished by moving the handle 
of the motorman’s valve so as to open a port communica- 
tion from the train-line to atmosphere. When the pres- 
sure in the train line is reduced 10 to 18 pounds, the 
triple valve automatically operates, establishing an open- 
ing between the auxiliary reservoir and the brake cylin- 
der. The triple valves on all cars in the train operate 
almost simultaneously, and the compressed air has only 
to flow a short distanee from the auxiliary reservoir to 
its particular brake cylinder. 

In the straight air system the air receiver consists of 
a single large reservoir charged to a high pressure. To 
operate the brakes the motorman turns the handle of 
the operating valve to such a position as will provide an 
unobstructed opening for compressed air to flow from 
the reservoir to the brake cylinder; thus as positive and 

78 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 719 


reliable setting of the brakes as is possible is secured, 
combining maximum simplicity with absolute certainty. 
The velocity of air under high pressure is so great that 
the time elapsing before the pressure is'equalized between 
the reservoir and brake cylinder on the last car of a train 
of two or three cars, is so brief as to be practically instan- 
taneous, giving as almost simultaneous application of 
brakes on all of the cars in the train as is possible with 
the automatic system. 

An advantage possessed by the straight air system 
consists in the ability of the operator to increase or 
decrease the amount of pressure in the brake cylinder at 
will and with a fine degree of accuracy; whereas to de- 
crease the pressure in the automatic system it is necessary 
to release the brakes entirely and re-apply them to the 
desired degree, unless the system is equipped with the 
eraduated-release feature. This feature of the straight 
air system can be taken advantage of quite frequently 
when the car is coasting down long variable grades, as 
well as when making a stop that must be accurately 
accomplished at a given point. 


THE NATIONAL STRAIGHT AIR TRACTION 
BRAKE. 


Fig. 34 shows a view of the general arrangement of 
the National Straight Air Brake Equipment on a double 
truck electric car, and Fig. 35 is a diagram of the sys- 
tem as applied to a motor car, with trailer attached. 
The location of the various parts of the equipment de- 
pends upon two main factors, first, the existing elec- 
trical apparatus under the ear, or to be installed there; 


80 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 





Fig. 34. National Straight Air Brake Equipment for Double 
End Electric Motor Car. 








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i ‘ER congelitgel MOTORMANS VALVE 
ts =| = SAT a H 2 WHISTLE 
Ld = a | oe | aed 
7 —}—| | INSULATING TN? 
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s a | eee a ner om aM AE =f Thi, 
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MUFFLER 


Fig. 35. Diagram of National Straight Air Equipment for Motor Car and Trailer. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 81 


second, those parts requiring care and inspection should 
be located in positions most easily accessible. 

Following is a list of the several necessary devices 
that go to complete this system: 

Ist—An Air Compressor driven by an independent 
electric motor, and supplying the compressed air. 

2nd—An Automatic Governor which stops and starts 
the air compressor, thereby maintaining the pressure and 
regulating the supply of compressed air. 

3rd—A Main Reservoir in which the compressed air 
is stored. 

4th—A Brake Cylinder with piston rod connected to 
the brake levers in such a manner that when compressed 
air is admitted into the brake cylinder by means of the 
motorman’s operating valve, the piston is forced out- 
ward by the compressed air and the brake shoes applied 
against the wheels. 

5Sth—A Motorman’s Brake Valve placed at each con- 
trolling point of the car, by means of which the com- 
pressed air is admitted from the main reservoir to the 
brake cylinder, and from the brake cylinder to atmos- 
phere. 

6th—A specially constructed Piping System connect- 
ing the main reservoir with the motorman’s brake valve, 
and the pipe. leading from this valve and extending 
throughout the entire length of the train; the latter is 
termed the Train Pipe, and is fitted with flexible hose 
and couplings between the individual cars, with a stop 
cock at each end of every car and an auxiliary pipe 
leading to the brake cylinder arranged under each ear. 

7th—A. System of Wiring, including switches and 
fuse boxes, which connects the main trolley circuit to 
the compressor and governor. 


82 ELECTRIC RAILROADING: 


8th—The Hose Couplings with which each end of 
every car is equipped, and by means of which the train 
pipes on the cars are connected to form a continuous 
train pipe line. | 

9th—An Air Gauge of the single hand type to indi- 
cate the pressure in the main reservoir only. An air 
































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Fig. 36. A-1 Compressor. 


gauge provided with two hands is sometimes employed, 
one of which indicates the pressure in the main reser- 
voir, and the other the pressure in the train pipe, the 
former hand being colored red, and the latter black. 

10th—A Safety Valve to prevent any possibility of 
over-charging the main reservoir, and the piping sys- 
tem; 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 83 


11th—Also frequently required is a chime whistle op- 


erated by air pressure, used as a warning signal instead 
of a bell or gong. 





Fig. 37. National: BB-2 Type Compressor. 


INSTALLING THE MOTOR COMPRESSOR. 


The most desirable location for the motor compressor 
is under the car body. On account of the thoroughly 
dust-proof and water-proof construction of the A-1, A-4, 
BB-2, CC-3 and DD-4 type compressor, the equipment 
does not include an enclosing box for the motor com- 
pressor. It is claimed by the National Brake & Elec- 


84 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


trie Company that the elimination of the enclosing box 
is an advantage, as-it allows a free circulation of air 
around the compressor, thus tending to keep it cool and 
increasing its efficiency. There is furnished with each 


Suzpension Cradle. 


in 


A-4 Compressor Mounted 





compressor a light, rigid suspension cradle constructed 
of wrought iron bars. This eradle, shown in Fig. 38, 
combines strength with compactness and easy accessibil- 
ity to all parts of the compressor requiring attention. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 85 


The base of the compressor is bolted directly to the tie 
bars, which are insulated from the hangers by fibre and 
hard wood insulation. The above named parts com- 
prise the cradle proper suspended from the crossbars, 
which in turn are bolted directly to the car body. The 
compressor being very strongly supported by the wooden 
blocks and crossbars, its vibrations are completely ab- 
sorbed, and hence no strains are caused on the ear body. 
The compressor may be quickly removed from the sus- 
pension eradle by raising it about one-half inch and 
sliding out four bolts. 





Fig. 39. Motor Complete. 


The selection of the most desirable position for the 
motor compressor under the ear is largely governed by 
the amount of apparatus already there. The chosen 
place should be such as will ensure freedom from heated 
air from the resistance grids or car motors, and such 
that all oil holes in the compressor pump base will be 
readily accessible from the street. The air supply can 
be piped from any convenient point in the vestibule or 
roof of the car. The suction pipe has at its extremity, 


86 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


a suction strainer filled with pulled, curled hair with a 
fine mesh screen over the opening. The method of in- 
stalling is as follows: 

The compressor should always be installed with its 
shaft crosswise of the car and with the gear inside, or as 
near the center of the car as possible. 

The base of the compressor should be securely fastened 
to the suspension cradle, taking care to tighten cap 





screws and nuts solidly. Then attach the crossbars firmly 
to the car framing at uniform and proper distances 
apart. If the under framing is not suitably: arranged 
to conveniently receive the crossbars, secure one of the 
crossbars to a piece of the car framing, and insert a 
suitable timber for the other. Eight 5<-inch bolts should 
be employed for each crossbar. Lag screws are not per- 
nussible for this: purpose. It is permissible to bend up 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 87 


the ends of the crossbar and bolt them to the side of the 
sill. When the compressor must be removed from the 
eage it will be found that the construction of the cage 
is such that the compressor will readily come out through 
two sides of the cage without removing any part of it. 
The vent openings in the side of the pump base are for 





Fig. 41. A-2 Type Compressor from Gear End. 


the purpose of carrying away any vapors that may be 
venerated within it. These openings should never be 
closed, or made smaller. The connections to the main 
reservoir should all be made at the opposite end from 
that at which the discharge from the pump enters, in 
order to insure passage of air through the reservoir, and 


88 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


the deposit of water that may be precipitated in the 
cooling of the compressed air; likewise any oil or dirt 
that may have been carried along with it. 

Looking at the motor compressor from the gear end 
(see Fig. 41), the pump shaft should rotate clock-wise 
and the motor shaft in the opposite direction. The di- 
rection of rotation of the armature may be changed by 
reversing the brush holder connection. 





Fig. 42. Compressor Dismantled to Remove the Armature. 


A ecard showing the arrangement and connections of 
the straight air brake equipment is attached to each 
compressor sent out and should be carefully studied. In 
connecting up the wiring of the compressor the positive 
wire of the cireuit should be connected to the lead ex- 
tending through the motor frame nearest the commuta- 
tor door. Connect the other lead to the negative side 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 89 


of the circuit. The set screws on the brass terminals 
must be tightly set, and the terminals completely 
wrapped with insulating tape. 





Fig. 43. Phantom View of Compressor Base. 


INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE, 


While the instructions for installing the compressor 
as herein given may serve as a good guide, they should 
not be considered. as ironclad rules. On account of the 
arrangement of the existing equipment differing so 
widely on different cars, and other conditions varying so 
much, the judgment of the master mechanic must neces- 


90 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


sarily be exercised in a large degree in determining the ~ 
method of installation. In other words, what might be 
good practice for one road might be altogether unsuited 
to a different road. 

The air compressor and its driving motor require but 
nominal attention. The following are the most import- 
ant points in their maintenance: 1st—The oil is intro- 
duced into the pump chamber through oil holes or plugs 
which are arranged as shown in Fig. 49. 





Fig. 44. Piston, Rings and Connecting Rod. 


A good quality of engine oil should be used, such as 
will suffer no change from the high temperatures some- 
times reached in the crank chamber after long operation 
of the pump. The oil used should also have a low freez- 
ing point. The bad results obtained from the use of 
crude, unpurified oils in causing abrasion of the eylin- 
ders, and losing body under high temperatures will 
greatly over-balance the low first cost obtained by this 
pchey. Inspection should be made at least every other 
day, and the oil supply regularly replenished once a 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 91 


week; oftener if necessary. About every two and a half 
months at the least, the drain plug 6 (Fig. 49) should be 
opened and the oil drained off for filtering. 2d—The 
armature bearings should be regularly inspected and 
oiled when needed. The armature bearing on the com- 
mutator end is oiled through filling plug 46 and does 
not require any further attention except that the oil 





Fig. 45. Lower Half of Motor. 


should be replenished when inspection shows this to be 
necessary. The bearing at the gear end should be oiled 
through filling plug provided for that purpose. This 
bearing requires no further replenishing after the pump 
has once been started, as the oil is constantly replenished 
by the motion of the gear. 


92 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The armature is removed by taking out the cap screws 
55 which fasten the field frame to the motor. base; then 
disconnect the brush holder leads and the field coil leads, 
and after removing the brush holder, unscrew the cap 
screws, which secure the top half of the motor bearing 
housing, take out cotter pins 53, after which pinion 74 
may be pulled off. It is necessary that the armature 
should be free to move in the opposite direction, as the 
gear teeth prevent the pinion from moving outwardly. 





Fig. 46. Brush Gear Complete. 


The armature may now be lifted from its position, 
much care being taken to prevent it from striking against 
pole pieces, and injuring the cross sections at the end 
of the core. 

In replacing the armature, slide it carefully into the 
fields until the threaded end projects from the bearing 
with the key-way up. The pinion should then be slid into 
position and a small lever used to force it into alignment 
with the shaft. 

Replace the head with the commutator bearing, care 
being taken to keep grit and dirt out of the bearing and 
from the oil rings; and see that the oil rings are in their 
proper position on the shaft. The electrical connections 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 93 


should be made exactly as before, and the brushes also 
replaced as original to preserve the same brush pressure 
on the commutator. 


Brush Gear Disassembled, 


Fig. 47. 





While the pinion is still uncovered, turn the arma- 
ture by hand to determine whether the gears run freely ; 
‘hen screw the bearing shell back into place and run the 
eompressor with the motor long enough to pump full 


94 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


pressure in the reservoir. The arrangement of the sus- 
pension cradle is such that the disassembling, and re- 
assembling may be easily done while the compressor is in 
position under the car, and either operation can be done 
by one man who has had a short experience in this work, 
and is provided with a standard wrench for this purpose. 


3. If the field coils must be removed the compressor 
should be taken from the ear and since this operation is 
easily accomplished with the National type of suspen- 
sion, when a suitable kind of jacking apparatus is pro- 
vided in the pit, it-is very advisable that roads using air 
brake equipments, keep several extra compressors on 
hand, so that a damaged one may be easily replaced and 
the repairs made in the shop during day hours which 
ean be done to a better advantage than at night. 


4. The commutator should be kept clean, but not 
necessarily highly polished; a rich glossy bronze is most 
desirable. The brushes should always have a good con- 
tact, and also be free in their holders. The brush ten- 
sion ean be increased, or decreased, by means of the car- 
bon adjustment. When it becomes necessary to turn 
down the commutator, due to wear by the brushes or 
other causes, particular care should be taken to bevel off 
the corners slightly on the end of the bars. If the bars 
are left with a sharp edge, the mica is more likely to 
crumble away and cause a short circuit from bar to bar; 
the mica will then become carbonized, and the commuta- 
tor in time ruined. In removing the commutator, the oil 
guard which is shrunk on the shaft should first be taken 
off either by heating with a blow torch or by turning off 
on a lathe; the commutator can then be pulled off easily 
with screws in the usual way. A new oil guard must be 
shrunk on and finished like the old one. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 95 


5. If for any reason the brush gear must be dis- 
assembled. especial care should be taken to have the 
brush lead as originally adjusted. This adjustment is 
readily effected by screw 120. Ordinarily there will be 
no oceasion for changing the brush adjustment, as the 





‘ Fig. 48. Type A-4 National Compressor. 


entire motor can be taken apart without doing so, since 
the brush holder yoke is attached to bearing cap 42 only. 

6. When removing the pinion from the armature 
‘shaft, always use a pinion puller. Never use a sledge 
hammer for this purpose. 


96 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


7. When removing the gear from the crank shaft, use 
a wooden mallet on the rough part of the gear; in such 
cases great care should be taken not to injure the teeth, 
as they will only have to be repaired again before the 
compressor can be put in service. Since the tendency of 
the pinion is to wear the gear teeth at the two points 
corresponding to the dead centers of the crank shaft, 
there are two key-ways 90° apart for turning the gear 
one-quarter. 

8. If the suction and discharge valves wear irregu- 
larly, they as well as their chambers should be thorough- 
ly cleaned in gasoline at least once every six months. 
The valves should be removed and their cavities 
thoroughly cleaned with vaseline. Never put any oil on 
the valves. The suction strainer should be cleaned once 
every week when oiling to avoid the accumulation of dirt 
therein with consequent reduction of compressor effi- 
ciency. 

9. In assembling the motor compressor, much care 
should be taken to have the gear and pinion mesh prop- 
erly, since a defect in the meshing of the gear will re- 
sult in a pounding or grinding noise when the com- 
pressor is operating. The best results are obtained by 
having a play of about one-sixty-fourth of an inch be- 
tween the teeth. 

If a pounding develops in the compressor, remove the 
pump base cover, and adjust the crank bearings of the 
connecting rods by taking out some of the washers pro- 
vided for this purpose. The connecting rod caps are 
adjusted by means of these shims which, when removed 
one by one, draw the connecting rod caps into better 
bearing surface on the crank shaft. Be sure to tighten 
the lock nuts and replace the cotter pins. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 97 


To remove the piston packing rings or the wrist pin, 
the connecting rod must be detached from the crank 
shaft. After removing the cylinder head, the piston can 
be taken out. 














































































































50 Sl 5355 a8 
@ 707173 \ 72 
ln 42 
is ian ee So 
74 446163 (Slee =| =e 
43 = — a8 
43 Z a5 
is ' 45 
/\B7 
66 
4B- 7 
39 S 
28 79 
46 


Fig. 49. Front Sectional Diagram of Compressor. 


Some care must be taken in replacing the packing 
rings, as their diameters and faces are nicely ground. In 
replacing the piston rings they are first assembled in the 
groove on the piston with their springs; a flexible wire 
is then wound once around the piston ring. By pulling 
both ends of the wire the ring will be drawn to the diam- 


98 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


eter of the bore of the cylinder, which then makes it 
easier to push the piston back to its original position. 

In removing the wrist pin, take out the set screw, and 
by gently tapping the small end of the wrist pin with a 


block and mallet the pin is easily removed. 
10. Insulation couplings should be kept tight and in 


perfect order; regular inspection of these parts is there- 


fore necessary. 





se 6S 75 



















34h. 
32 a 
a1 MH 
30--\—_\ 

NAN 
33° EN 







va 









y) Z ——— 
YUM pre Sy Li 
Vo ig a 


3 LL 


Lith 











Fig. 50. Sectional Diagram of Compressor. 


If the compressor is constantly blowing its fuse and 
the motor is working properly, it may be assumed that 
the fault is in the pump. Inspection will likely show 
that the discharge valves are sticking or that the piston 
is Operating with considerable friction in its cylinder, 
due to insufficient lubrication, or that a hot bearing 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 99 


exists. Under no circumstances should a heavier fuse be 
substituted for the size advised on a given compressor, 
as a burned out motor may result. 

The sizes of fuses which are recommended for the dif- 
ferent types of compressors, when operated on 550 volt 
currents, are as follows: 


COMPRESSOR AMPERES OF FUSES 
NUMBER AT 550 VOLTS. 
PD Getta SET Pane eee eB Ny AIORIN han Ling 6 
JAILS Gy Dh Ayhel baie ie tth « a oc7 a REL 6 
Fae BES ait anak) St ae ne 6 
ee sais eee en e curar ttn Dee aN 10 
FES eee eh cae TE rE Beret NB mi ga fd 10 
OE OEP RIN 2 UR ihn ie Magi oy J cata a a ey 
IDB re OCT Di cae Ol SR eal eet dee 2.0 










































































Fig. 51. Sectional Diagram of Compressor Armature, 


DIRECT CURRENT, SERIES WOUND MOTOR COMPRESSOR— 
TYPE A-4. 


Fig. 48 shows a view of this type of compressor, and 
Figs. 49 to 53 inclusive present sectional elevations show- 
ing the various parts in their relation to each other. 
The numbers used in the following description apply to 
the different sections. The air passes into the cylinders 


100 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


through the suction valve chambers 31 (see Fig. 50). 
The air intake pipe is fitted with strainer screens, filled 
with pulled, curled hair. The design of the mesh of 
these screens, and the arrangement of the absorbent is 
such that all dust, and foreign matter is stopped before 
it reaches the cylinder. After passing the suction valves, 
the air flows through ports into the cylinders. On the 
return stroke of the pistons the air is forced through the 
discharge ports, past the discharge valves, and from 
thence to the discharge pipe. The suction and discharge 
valves are made of hard, cold drawn tubular steel, and 
are easily accessible, and removable. By unscrewing the 
valve caps 32 on top of the cylinder head, all valves 
are accessible. The valves being seated by gravity, 
springs are unnecessary. The complete trunk pistons 18 
(see Fig. 52) are fitted with carefully ground piston 
packing rings 19. When dismantling the pump, each 
ring should be used with the piston on which it was 
originally fitted. The piston wrist pins 21, on which 
the tail end of the connecting rods work, are of hard- 
ened, carefully ground steel, and are held in place by 
the set-screw 22. Working on them is the bronze bush- 
ing 76 (Fig. 50) in the connecting rod 23. The lin- 
ing of the crank under the connecting rod is a special 
quality of babbitt metal, and is hinged at its lower end, 
and fastened by an eyebolt 26, at the upper end. The 
thin steel shims 27 are removable, so that as the bearinz 
wears the strap may be tightened on the others, and 
locked with a jam nut. It is very essential that the shaft 
should rotate with the compression part of the stroke on 
the upper half of the revolution or in a clock-wise direc- 
tion, when viewed from the gear end. The crank shaft 
12 (Fig. 52) is of special grade steel, liberally propor- 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 101 


tioned with large size outside caps 2 and 3, of lumen. 
Bushings 4 and 5 run through the center. The lubri- 
cation of all these parts is effected by a bath of oil with 
which the crank case is filled through the screw plug 6 
(Fig. 49), which is fitted with a handle. The gear 17 
(Fig. 52) on the overhanging end of the crank shaft is 
made of a special high carbon steel, and is constructed 
of two halves, which are solidly riveted together, thus 
constituting the very efficient herringbone type of gear. 
It is driven onto the shaft over a square key, and rigidly 
fastened by a large nut. 


THE MOTOR. 


The motor is a four-pole enclosed series wound type, 
provided with a cast steel housing 50 (see Fig. 49), made 
in one piece, and fitted with hinged doors over the com- 
mutator end, which give easy and quick access to the 
brushes and commutator. The hinged door 54 (Fig. 50) 
covers the opening tightly, and thoroughly excludes dust 
or rain. The armature bearings rest on supports 41 at 
each end of the frame, and are provided with oil wells, 
so arranged that flooding the interior of the motor with 
oil is impossible. The armature bearings 61 and 62 are 
amply dimensioned east iron shells, ined with high grade 
lumen metal, and fastened with dowel pins 44. Two oil 
rings are used on each bearing, which gives positive as- 
surance that the bearing will be lubricated as long as 
there is any oil in the well. An overflow pipe 47, at 
the pinion end of the bearing, extends to the bottom of 
the crank case, and absolutely prevents any of the 
gear oil which might escape from the pinion bearing from 
flooding the motor. The four field poles are a part of 


102 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


the frame 50, two being arranged in a horizontal plane 
in order to reduce the height of the compressor. The 
field coils are clamped in position by clamp bolts 52 pro- 
vided with a nut.. The armature is built up of soft steel 















Ss) 













SN 









y 
idan. Lddddddnn Kee Sn cr eee Ly 


CSILISILELLUTETEEELELILOLEELELOLLLESELESSESEEOLEDILEEODEELEEEELD Dee 
N Ug 


IS 


WA 


SSSIoy 






CLL 














Liddddddldeda 





TS = 
Wi 


‘La 


| 
= 










S 












t/ 
= pl 
rv, Se f 
a?) : 
MARAT 















Ss 































G~ 
Ao 
ty 
kz al 
aaeee. 


; a 
7 — i 
Ee 


SSS 














SSS 














SK 





di 


K\ 








Fig. 52. Sectional Diagram of Compressor Base. 


laminations 87 (see Fig. 51) with carefully punched 
slots in which are laid uniformly proportioned, machine 
wound coils. The commutator bars 100 are deep, and 
long and are amply insulated from each other by hich 
grade mica segments 99. Much care is bestowed upon 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 103 


the support of the leads from the coils to the ecommu- 
tator bars. This support consists of an insulating ring 
resting on the commutator sleeve 93. The end portions 
of the coils are also banded with piano wire 91, over in- 
sulation tape to safeguard them from damage due to 
centrifugal foree. The two brush holders 72 (Fig. 53) 
are supported on the adjustable cast iron yoke 105. They 
are of cast brass, and are held in place by the hexagonal) 
nuts 109 and 110, and threaded to the body of the 
holder. The brush holders are well insulated from the 
yoke by a shield 113, cap screw 120, and washers 114 and 
115. The carbon brushes 73 fit in machined guides, and 
are maintained in contact with the commutator by coiled 
steel tension springs 111, which keep a uniform tension 
throughout the life of the brush. As all of these com- 
pressors are primarily intended for operating electric 
railway brakes, they must be operated intermittently, 
and even then a limit is imposed upon the length of 
time they can be safely run, due to temperature rise in 
the motor. The maximum continuous run which is ad- 
visable to operate them is given in the following table: 


PRESSURE OPERATION REST 
130 lbs. 10 minutes 20 minutes 
100 Ibs. 15 minutes 15 minutes 
65 \bs. 15 minutes 15 minutes 
20 lbs. 25 minutes 5 minutes 


This table will serve as a good guide for the operation 
of ordinary railway compressors in average service, and 
shows the maximum continuous run which is recom- 
mended for compressors operating at various pressures, 
and the interval of rest required. 


104 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


For use on single truck cars the National Brake & 
Electric Company has developed and manufactured a 
very compact and conveniently installed type of com- 
pressor termed the A-2 type (shown in Fig. 41), which 
has a capacity of 11 cubic feet of free air per minute, 
and which is constructed of the same high grade mate- 
rials and with the same care in workmanship as those 
of larger output. 





Fig. 53. Brush Holder and Parts. 


The essential differences in design of the A-2 com- 
pressor and the A-4, and the various other types of 
larger capacity, are a modified form of air pump base, 
and such an arrangement of the gear case, as to greatly 
reduce the height of the compressor. The motor is of 
the open, instead of the enclosed type, which feature 
contributes toward making it of lower height than the 
compressors of larger capacity. These alterations in de- 
sign over Standard types were made for the purpose 
of producing a compressor which could readily, and 
conveniently, be placed under a car seat with the gov- 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 


o> 


Sy es, 
ro i 
1 aS 
- uw 
ez ni i) i 
Ml gs pore No 
" 
i a ) 
ari 






Bannan \\ 


AY, 









IR 
NW 
WA 

\ 


wv! 
| 
bl | 
ot) 

" 
d 






Np 


BI) ie 


105 


Single Truck Car Equipment with A-2 Compressor. 


Fig. 54. 


106 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


ernor. The arrangement and sequence of the parts of 
an equipment in which the A-2 compressor is used, is 
clearly shown in Fig. 54. The motor compressor 1 is lo- 
cated under the car seat near the door, and almost di- 
rectly over the reservoir 2. In this position the com- 
pressor is fully protected from dust, dirt and the 
weather and the motor therefore requires no enclosing 
ease, which would be a detriment as it would prevent 
the free radiation of the heat which is generated by the 
motor, as well as interfere with the quick and easy in- 
spection of the commutator, brushes and other parts. 
The governor 3, which is of the standard oil-pneumatic 
type, is located in close proximity to the compressor, and 
immediately over the reservoir, its position being quite 
advantageous as the temperature of the air near the 
compressor is always closely uniform. 

The motorman’s valve 4 and the gauge 5, which are 
the standard National Types as described in following 
pages, are arranged directly in the cab and take up very 
little space. The brake cylinder 6 is also of the stan- 
dard type and placed in the usual position. The piping 
connections to the several parts of the equipment are 
shown in dotted outline, and are self-explanatory. 


PNEUMATIC GOVERNOR. 


The exacting conditions to which electric railway ap- 
paratus is subjected in these modern times necessitates 
the use of equipment that will render efficient service, 
but said equipment must be reliable and free from break- 
downs. The reliable and efficient operation of motor 
driven air brake machinery depends in a large meas- 
ure upon the reliability of the governing unit, which 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE LOT 


automatically maintains, or should maintain, a constant 
supply of compressed air at the required pressure. Some 
of the requirements of a trustworthy governor are, first, 
that it may be relied upon; second. that it be prompt. 


Governor Complete. 


Fig. 55. 





and entirely automatic in its action; third, that its de- 
sign and construction be such that it will operate for 
long periods without requiring attention or repairs. Fig. 
5. shows a view of the oil pneumatic governor with 


108 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


which the National Brake & Electric Company’s motor 
compressor is equipped. Fig. 56 shows the governor 


with Cover Removed. 


06. Governor 


Fis, 





with the cover removed, and Figs. 57 and 58 are sec- 
tional views showing in detail the working parts of the 
device. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 109 


im 9 


CONSTRUCTION OF TYPE Ni OIL-PNEUMATIC GOVERNOR. 


Referring to Figs. 57 and 58, 1 is the complete base of 
containing case into which are cast the keyways for 






42 




















3 a = 3 S 14 3 24 
pal LITE al 6b} 
ian ae Pr: ee a 


Fig. 57. Section of Governor. Type N. 


fastening the forward end of the extension spring 21 and 
the contact arm stops. The containing case is fitted with 
a paper gasket 42, and the cover 5 and is screwed to 





Fig. 58. Governor with Cover Removed. Sectional Diagram of 
Type “N” Governor. 


lugs by means of screws 23. The piston 12 is equipped 
with double cups or gaskets 24, made of a special com- 
position material which is not affected by oil. The cylin- 


110 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


der head 4 is screwed in position by screws 22. The 
piston 12 works in the air chamber guided by 3 on the 
opposite end of the piston rod which is securely screwed 
to base 1. The piston 12 with the packing rings 13 is 
held in position by a screw 16. The packing rings 13 
are of a special design which allow no escape of air 
around the sides of the piston but at the same time per- 
mit the piston to move freely in the cylinder. 14 and 
15 are piston followers. The piston rod carries the op- 
erating spring 21 and a spring adjusting yoke or collar 
19 at its forward end to which the controlling spring. is 
secured. The adjusting yoke is provided with a washer 
20, the tension of the spring being adjusted by turning 
the hexagonal nut 19. The cylinder end of the spring is 
held in the containing box by the two keyways referred 
to above. These keys are shaped in such a way that the 
spring is held very rigidly; this makes a neat, substan- 
tial and strong method of supporting the spring. 


The cylinder is tapped directly to the reservoir so 
that the piston is always subjected to reservoir pressure, 
and no waste of air can occur. The spring used is of 
large diameter and made of special heavy wire carefully 
tempered, and will withstand any strains likely to occur 
without becoming weakened. The piston rod is threaded 
at its lower end to receive the adjusting nuts 17 for 
varying the range between minimum and maximum 
pressures. Double nuts are used so that by holding one, 
and screwing the other the pressure between the two 
securely locks them together. These adjusting nuts are 
made round instead of square and are adjusted by means 
of a spanner wrench which militates against the tempta- 
tion of a motorman with a monkey wrench, to tamper 
with the adjustment which the master mechanic has 
made. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 111 


A trip hammer of the ‘‘kodak shutter’’ type and made 
of brass, is pivoted on a post 37 between the adjusting 


Governor Disassembled. 


Seiad 


Type 


Fig. 59. 





nuts, its function being to trip the switch arm to open 
and close the electric circuit. The trip hammer mechan- 


112 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


ism which actuates the switch arm is accelerated by the 
action of the spring 29 supported on a pin 25 and fas- 
tened at one end by means of the pin guide 30 secured 
at the trip hammer end by means of a movable metallic 
block, or eccentric device working between parallel jaws 
east as an integral part of the trip hammer. The other 
end is secured to the wall of the containing case by 
means of toggle pin 26 which fits in lugs cast into the 
governor case. A smaller, shorter spring 28 of one- 
eighth the power of the trip hammer accelerating spring, 
and separated by distance piece 27 from the former, pre- 
vents vibration of the switch arm when the circuit is 
open. The method of supporting this spring is identical 
with that of the accelerating spring. 


The switch arm 18 is made of a special insulating ma- 
terial which experience has proven to be the most 
effective, and durable insulating material for air brake 
service, especially high tension brake work. Being always 
under oil, no deterioration of the insulating material can 
occur. The motion of the switch arm in either direc- 
tion is lhmited by two stops cast into the end of the 
governor case. 

The moving switch blade contacts 39 are of heavy 
square shaped phosphor bronze, and are adjusted by 
means of screws 43 and adjusting plate 41 so that the 
area of ‘‘wiping contact’’ may be increased or decreased 
as may be required. The stationary electric contacts 10 
are heavy, square shaped plugs, and are insulated from 
the governor containing case by means of the heavy in- 
sulating bushings 32. Short-cireuiting between station- 
ary contacts and ease is therefore impossible. The ar- 
rangement of the supporting screws for the stationary 
contact is such that they can be easily turned over to 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 113 


present a new contact for the switch blade if the ocea- 
sion should ever arise, which will be rare. The two ter- 
minals for the electrical connections are placed on the 
side of the governor case, and are thoroughly insulated 
from each other and the containing case by means of a 
thick fibre block 31, which eliminates all danger of short 
circuiting. The two terminals can be either trolley or 
motor connection, respectively, without in any way affect- 
ing the operation of the governor, hence there is no possi- 
bility of making a wrong connection. The terminals are 
protected from interference, and danger of contact by 
means of the rectangular metal cover 2 screwed to the 
governor case. The leads from the motor cireuit are run 
through insulated holes, made either in the top or the bot- 
tom of this cover. 


INSTALLATION. 


A good location for the governor is under a car seat, 
inside the car, and as directly over the reservoir as pos- 
sible. Connect the governor as directly to the reservoir 
as possible, so that pulsations in the air pressure, on ac- 
eount of the operation of the compressor, or a drop of 
pressure in the pipe leading from the reservoir, may be 
avoided as much as possible. The connecting pipe should 
be as short as possible; should have a downward slope 
towards the reservoir, and be free from pockets where 
moisture might collect and freeze. 

See that the terminals are in good condition, and that 
the electrical circuit is continuous before putting the 
cover in position. 

The governor ease should be filled to within one-fourth 
of an inch of the top. Use any good mineral oil having 


114 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


a high flash test, and a low freezing point. Do not use 
kerosene or animal oil. Serew the cover down tight be- 
fore putting the governor in service. 


OPERATION. 


The Type N Governor is equally well adapted for 
operation by direct, or alternating current, and its per- 
formance is not affected in any wise by variations of 
voltage. The operation of the governor is also entirely 
independent of gravity or outside forces. When the 
compressor is operating and the air pressure increases, 
the force of the piston at once begins to expand the 
operating spring. As the pressure is increased towards 
a maximum, the upper adjusting nut forces the project- 
ing end of the trip hammer over its center causing it, 
with the assistance of the accelerating spring, to deliver 
a quick blow to the switch arm which immediately knocks 
it out of contact and opens the circuit. The are which 
follows is instantly suppressed by the oil. 

The pressure at which the governor cuts in is regu- 
lated by the extension spring, which is adjusted for the 
desired pressure by screwing the hexagonal spring nuts 
on the spindle. Screwing the nuts forward on the spin- 
dle increases the tension of the spring and requires a 
higher air pressure for actuating the governor. By mov- 
ing the nuts towards the piston, the tension of the spring 
is decreased, and a lower pressure on the piston will cut 
in the switch arm. 

As the pressure approaches a maximum the two nuts 
on the piston side of the toggle regulate the range of its 
movement. The two corresponding nuts on the opposite 
side of the toggle also limit its movement as the pressure 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 115 


approaches a minimum. ‘These two sets of double nuts 
are merely two points for varying the time limit, in 
which maximum, and minimum pressure will be attained. 
The desired adjustment is effected by moving the nuts 
until the gauge indicates the required limits. <A spring 
shoe device on each switch blade, fitted with screws, en- 
ables the blades to be raised or lowered. Tightening the 
screws forces down the U shaped spring, thus drawing 
the switch blades against the stationary contacts and 
increasing the area of ‘‘wiping’’ contact. 





Fig. 60. Type “A” Governor Complete. 


When it is necessary to change the adjustment of the 
governor, much care should be taken to prevent any or- 
ganic matter from getting in the containing case, as it 
might cause some of the oil to carbonize and interfere 
with the satisfactory operation of the governor. 

Fig. 60 shows the type ‘‘A’’ pneumatic governor man- 


116 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


ufactured by the National Brake & Electric Company. 
This is a strictly pneumatic appliance, and is very sim- 
ple in design and construction, as will appear by an in- 
spection of Fig. 61, which shows the governor with the 
cover open. It consists of two main parts and a cover, 
which, when separated, expose the entire mechanism to 
view, thus giving ready access to all parts. A source of 





Fig. 61. Type “A’” Governor with Cover Open. 


serious trouble in motor-driven compressor governors has 
been the magnetic blow-out coil for suppressing the are- 
ing, which causes the burning out of contacts, thus mak- 
ing the operation of the governor unreliable. In the 
type ‘‘A’’ pneumatic governor an air blow-out has been 
provided which extinguishes the arc, and also keeps the 
enclosing ease free from dust and dirt. Only two ad- 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE BLT 


justing screws are used, one for maximum and one for 
minimum pressures, and these screws are accessible when 
the governor is installed either under the ear body or 
underneath a car seat. This type of governor is adapted 
for operation on either direct or alternating current, and 
variations in pressure or voltage will not affect its opera- 
tion. 

Referring to Fig. 62, giving side and end sectional 
elevations, there are three operating portions, viz., cut- 
out, cut-in and main or switch operating portion. These 
portions are enclosed in a cast iron containing case, which 
is divided into two parts so as to allow all valve mechan- 
ism to be readily removed when desired. These two parts 
are securely fastened together by cap screws, and are 
dowelled so that in reassembling perfect alignment be- 
tween all moving parts is assured. A cover 3 made of 
sheet iron, and: fastened to the ‘containing case by means 
of a hinge and bolt, is provided, and gives quick access 
to the adjusting screws and contact shoes, as well as to 
the two terminals. As will be noted, the connecting 
wires for the motor are brought through the frame 1, 
protected by suitable insulating bushings 29 and con- 
nected to the terminals 16, which are mounted on an in- 
sulating block 30, securely fastened to the casing 1, thus 
insulating each terminal from the other as well as from 
the frame casing. 

When the main piston 4, or piston carrying the cir- 
cuit closer is in eut-in position, the circuit between the 
terminals is closed by a short circuiting device 27, 
mounted on the end of the contact carrier 25, which in 
turn is mounted on the piston rod 23. This short eir- 
cuiting device is provided with removable contact shoes 
19, and is also insulated from the piston rod by means 


118 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


of the insulating block 28. By the admission of sufficient 
air pressure under the main piston, the short circuiting 
device is moved upward, and away from the contact 
shoes 18, of the terminals. At the same time a blast of 
air from the blow holes N, N, is allowed to pass across 
the faces of the contact shoes 18 and 19, thereby ex- 
tinguishing the are, and reducing the burning effect on 
the contacts to a minimum. 

In order to keep the contact carrier and the contact 
shoes in perfect alignment at all times the outer ends of 
the contact carrier operate on two parallel guides 24. 
A spring tension device, which is an integral part of 
terminals 16, on which the contact shoes 18 are mounted, 
enables the tension of the shoes to be increased, or de- 
ereased by means of screws 17. The cut-out and cut-in 
portions are very simple and have few parts. The pilot, 
or high pressure valve 5, is similar in construction and 
operation to any ordinary pop safety valve. When the 
air pressure acting upon the under, or reservoir, side of 
the valve becomes high enough to overcome the tension 
of the spring 13, with which the valve is loaded, the 
valve moves upward sufficiently to allow the air that 
passes across the valve seat 21 to act upon the increased 
area which is then exposed, thus overcoming the pressure 
of the spring, and instartly moving the valve to its full 
upward position, and suddenly opening direct connec- 
tion between the main piston chamber 1 and the reser- 
voir. The cut-in portion consists of a metal diaphragm 
6, a diaphragm keeper 9, which is threaded and securely 
fastened in position, a pin valve 8, a spring 12, and a 
guide 7. To relieve the diaphragm of all strain when 
exit valve 8 is open, a set screw with lock nut 26 is 
provided, which takes the pressure of spring 12 off the 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 119 








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diaphragm. <A gasket 15 of suitable material, is pro- 
vided between the parts of the containing case so as to 
seal the air chambers from the atmosphere. Adjusting 
screws 10 and 11, with lock nuts 22 are used for the regu- 
lation of the high and low pressure portions. 


120 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Fig. 62 shows the governor in ‘‘no pressure’’ position, 
with all valves and the piston in the lower extreme of 
their travel. As is obvious, after the main switch has 
been closed, current will pass from main switch and 
fuse to the terminal 16+, through the contact shoes 
18 and 19, through the short circuiting device, through 
the contact shoes 19 and 18 to the terminal 16—, thence 
to the compressor motor, starting the compressor, and 
restoring the air pressure in the main reservoir. As- 
suming the governor to be set to operate at a pressure 
of from 60 to 70 lbs., or in other words, to start the 
compressor when main reservoir pressure has fallen to 
60 Ibs., and to stop the compressor when the pressure 
in the reservoir has risen to 70 lbs. 


After the pressure in the main reservoir has been 
brought up to 60 Ibs. or more, the air pressure in cham- 
ber A, which is in direct communication with the main 
reservoir through suitable piping will also have been 
raised to this point. This pressure in chamber A act- 
ing against diaphragm 6 will overcome the pressure of 
spring 12, thus allowing diaphragm 6 to move upward, 
and force exit valve 8 to seat on diaphragm keeper 9, 
thereby cutting off communication between chambers 
F and D. 

Any further increase of pressure in chamber A acting 
against diaphragm 6 will cause greater pressure to be 
brought to bear on exit valve 8 and its seat, which 
insures the proper seating of the valve. 

As soon as the main reservoir pressure has reached 
70 lbs. the force acting on the under side of valve 5 in 
chamber A will have overcome the pressure of spring 


“ 


13, allowing air to pass across the seat to valve 5 and 


») 


into cavity B, and by reasen of the greater increased 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 121 


area of the valve when exposed to pressure in chamber 
B the valve will instantly move to its upward limit of 
travel, thereby establishing communication between the 
main reservoir and the main piston chamber I by way 
of chamber A, cavity B, passageway H, and port J. 

As the main piston 4 is somewhat retarded in its 
movement upward by spring 14, it is obvious that some 
air will by-pass the piston by the way of the leak holes 
O and O, which, entering chamber K passes through 
port L to passageway M and discharges directly across 
the faces of contacts 18 and 19 through ports N and N. 
This blast of air continues until the main piston reaches 
its upward position and is seated against seat 20. The 
compressor circuit will by this time have been broken. 

After the main reservoir pressure has been reduced 
to 60 lbs. or thereabouts, the tension of spring 12, with 
the assistance of the air pressure in passageway E, will 
have overcome the air pressure in chamber A acting 
against diaphragm 6, allowing exit valve 8 to move 
downward, thereby connecting chamber F with the res- 
ervoir by way of chamber A, cavity B, passageway C, 
chamber D, and passageway E. 

It will be readily seen that when the exit valve 8 is 
open, pressure will soon be raised in chamber F, as the 
area of the opening around exit valve 8 is greatly in 
excess of that of exhaust port G. When the pressure in 
chamber F has been raised sufficiently, together with the 
assistance of spring 13, to overcome the pressure acting 
against the lower side of valve 5, it will promptly move 
down, thereby cutting off communication between the 
main reservoir, chamber I, and cavity B. Air pressure 
will then pass from chamber I through J and passage- 
way H, cavity B, passageway C, chamber D, passageway E, 
and chamber F, through the exhaust port G to atmosphere. 


122 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


After the pressure in chamber I has been reduced 
sufficiently, spring 14 will move the main piston 4 from 
its seat, thus allowing the remainder of the volume of 
air in chamber I to escape by way of the leak grooves 
O and O through the piston chamber K, and ports N and 
N; the spring will then move the piston promptly to its 
bottom position, thereby closing the motor circuit. 

In connection with the operation of this governor it 
will be noticed that it will be impossible to secure a 
higher pressure than that at which the governor is set 
to operate at, as the high pressure, or pilot, valve is 
identical in operation to that of a safety valve, and 
when this valve is forced off its seat, air is admitted 
directly to the piston chamber, thus forcing the piston 
to its uppermost position and breaking the motor 
circuit. 

INSTALLATION. 


In installing this governor it is preferable 
to place it inside of the car or at some point 
where it will be kept warm during the winter 
time. However, this is not absolutely nec- 
essary. Care should be taken in making 
the pipe connections between the reservoir 
and the governor so that all pipe is free 
from scales or other foreign matter. A 
strainer filled with curled hair is provided 
for use in connection with this governor. 
rs meat HEN This should preferably be placed close to 

for Type‘A” the governor. Before starting, the contacts 

Governor. should be inspected to see that their adjust- 

ment is perfect. 

Should the governor not be adjusted for the required 
pressures, the best results will be secured by unscrewing 





THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE eos 


adjusting screw 10 so that the pressure will be taken 
off spring 12. Pressure on spring 13 should be in- 


Governor Completely Dismantled., 


Fig. 64. 





creased by means of the adjusting screw 11 until the 
air pressure, in the judgment of operator, will be higher 
than that at which the governor is desired to cut-out at, 


124 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The compressor may then be started by closing the main 
switch. When the pressure in the main reservoir has 
reached the desired point the compressor should be 
stopped, and adjusting screw 11 turned back until the 
pressure on spring 13 has been sufficiently reduced to al- 
low the valve to unseat, and the governor to cut out. 
The pressure should next be reduced in the reservoir to 
the point at which the governor is desired to cut in at, 
when pressure may be increased on spring 12 by means 
of adjusting screw 10 until the governor cuts in. This 
will bring the range within two or three pounds of that 
desired, and final adjustment may then be made. After 
the adjusting screws have been set to the required pres- 
sures, the lock nuts 22 should be set up so as to prevent 
the adjusting screws from coming loose. 


THE BRAKE CYLINDER. 


The brake cylinder is provided with a hollow rod, and 
a loose push rod, and cross head which makes it pos- 
sible to apply the hand brake without moving the piston, 
thus avoiding unnecessary wear and a useless expendi- 
ture of foree. 

Fig. 65 is a side sectional view of the brake cylinder 2 
of National air brake equipment, in which 3 is the piston, 
and sleeve in which the push rod connected with a sys- 
tem of brake levers is inserted. 4 is the no pressure cylin- 
der head, 5 is the pressure head, in which are two one- 
half inch pipe tapped holes, to one of which is connected 
the air piping, the other being closed by a plug 14. The 
pressure head is bolted to the cylinder by bolts 11, and 
the joints are made air tight by the use of a rubber 
gasket 12. The piston follower plate 6 clamps the 


125 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 


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126 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


packing leather to the piston by means of studs and 
nuts 10. The packing leather 7 is pressed against the 
eylinder wall to prevent air escaping past the 
piston. A round spring packing expander 8 serves 
to hold the flange of the packing leather against 
the cylinder walls. A plain pressure head is generally 
provided, which is fitted with a detachable lever bracket 
in order that the slack adjuster may be used or not, as 
desired, or the slack adjuster may be attached at any 
time without requiring a new cylinder head, or any 
other change, except removing the detachable bracket, 
and putting the slack adjuster in its place. 


INSTALLATION OF THE BRAKE CYLINDER. 


If the brake cylinder is 10 inches or less in diameter, 
it should be bolted to a hard wood plank not less than 
214 inches in thickness, and 12 inches wide, and long 
enough to fasten it securely to the car body framing. 
Bolts smaller than 34 inch should not be used for 10 and 
12 inch brake cylinders, and for the 14 inch brake 
eylinder %-in. bolts should be used, and the plank 
support should be of proportionally increased strength. 
The position for the brake cylinder should be so selected 
in its relation to the foundation brake rigging, that a 
release of brakes will force the push rod to the bottom 
of the hollow piston sleeve. It is advisable to place a 
union in the pipe connecting it to the train pipe, at a 
convenient point on one side of the cylinder, to enable 
the head to be removed for cleaning the cylinder. 

In removing the cylinder head for cleaning, the piston 
should first be forced outward by a slight application, 
and a nail or piece of wire inserted in the hole provided 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 127 


for that purpose in the piston rod pipe, to prevent the 
spring from foreing the piston out when the cylinder 
head is removed. 


INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF THE BRAKE CYLINDER. 


All lint and other matter which might possibly collect 
should be scrupulously cleaned from the piston and 
cylinder, and caked up deposits of oil and grit should be 
earefully cleaned out of the leakage groove. The pack- 
ing leather, expander ring, and piston should also be 
thoroughly cleaned. The packing leather should be 
kept soft and pliable, so that it will have a tight fit with 
easy action in the cylinder; to this end a space between 
the leather and the follower should be filled with a light 
grease. The use of a light grease in the cylinder has 
been found to give better results than oil. The use of 
too much grease should be avoided as it tends to thicken 
and interfere with the easy working of all parts. The 
follower nuts should be frequently tested for looseness. 

The Committee on Recommended Practice of the 
American Air-Brake Association (13th Annual Conven- 
tion, June, 1906) advises that brake cylinders be cleaned 
and cared for as follows: 1. The brake cylinder need 
not be removed from the car for cleaning; first, secure 
the piston rod firmly to the cylinder head, then after 
removing the cylinder head, piston rod, piston head and 
release spring, scrape off all deposits of gum and dirt 
with a narrow putty knife or its equivalent and have the 
removed parts wiped with waste saturated with kerosene 
or other light oil. 2. The packing leather should never 
be permitted to soak in kerosene oil, as the penetrating 
qualities of kerosene reach into the pores of the leather 


128 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


and foree out the life-giving qualities of the special oil 
with which the leather is treated by the manufacturer. 
3. The expander ring to be of a circumference which 
shall fit the bore of the brake cylinder when the ring is 
removed from its place between the follower and packing 
leather and entered in the cylinder. 4. <A goodly quan- 
tity of grease should be placed on the expander ring 
and the adjacent side of the packing leather, thus per- 
mitting the pressure. to force the grease into the leather 
and giving it greater life. 5. No sharp tool to be used 
in getting the packing leather into the cylinder. 6. 
After the piston is in place, and before the cylinder 
head is fastened on, the piston rod should be slightly 
rotated in all directions about three inches from the 
center line of the cylinder in order to be certain that 
the expanding ring is not out of place. 


THE RESERVOIR. 


The reservoir is the receptacle in which the com- 
pressed air is stored. It should have a capacity suf- 
ficient to supply the air necessary for three or four 
applications of the brakes without a reduction of more 
than twelve or fifteen pounds in the reservoir pressure. 
It is also of considerable importance to have a reservoir 
as large as possible on the ear, as this will result in con- 
siderable saving in the cost of maintenance of the motor 
compressor. Too small a reservoir will cause every 
ordinary application of the brakes to start the com- 
pressor into action. Such constant starting and stop- 
ping will result in unnecessary wear to both compressor 
and automatic governor. 

The weight of the car determines the size of brake 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 129 


cylinder to be used, which in turn governs to a large 
extent the capacity of the reservoir. The use of the 
following sizes of reservoirs is recommended, the dimen- 
sions given being over-all. 


GT SeO VINCE 1 cierto kee. ot 16% x (45/7 
HO TaeL Car CECT. foe nlols okt os 167) x48" 
MiG re Nom Cylinders flac. wa kieke as 16x GOS 


While the above sizes of reservoirs are considered 
standard, other sizes can be furnished when required. 

Since the function of the reservoir is also to entrap 
any water, oil, or dirt which may be swept in by the 
compressed air, thus preventing it being carried further 
into the brake system, it should be drained every day. 
The drain cock should be left open while the ear is in 
the barn so that every trace of oil and water may be 
removed from the air storage space. 

The reservoir is constructed of highest grade 14-inch 
steel tubing, designed to afford the maximum strength, 
with a minimum weight. 

The shell of the reservoir is made in one piece with 
overlapping seams which are firmly riveted together and 
rendered perfectly air tight. The ends of the reservoir 
are pressed in and beaded over to form a joint which is 
afterwards made absolutely tight by brazing. 

At one end the reservoirs are tapped to receive the 
pipe connections to the compressor. They are tapped 
at the other end for the reception of the main reservoir 
pipe leading to the motorman’s valve. <A tapped hole 
is also provided for the connection to the air compressor 
eovernor. The points where these pipes enter are 
heavily re-inforced. 


130 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


INSTALLATION OF THE RESERVOIR. 


The main reservoir should be well secured directly to 
the car body by means of the Reservoir Cradle, which 
consists of U-shaped iron bars and hardwood cleats, 
which are bolted to the car body beams, either with 
long screws or through bolts. The cleat or plank is 
hollowed out so as to fit the curvature of the reservoir 
properly; the drain cock should always be placed 
downwards. 





Fig. 66. Air Gauge. 


AIR GAUGES. 


On straight air brake equipments the single hand 
gauge, which indicates the pressure in the main reser- 
voir only, is standard practice. It is not only much 
cheaper than the duplex gauge, but since an experienced 
motorman does not set the brakes according to gauge 
pressure, but depends principally upon his own judg- 
ment, the use of a duplex gauge is not essential. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR. BRAKB 131 


INSTALLATION OF AIR GAUGES. 


The pressure gauges should be placed within conven- 
ient sight of the motorman. The exact location depends 
largely upon local conditions. Sometimes the gauge is 
placed overhead, attached to the roof of the motorman’s 
eab, directly above the brake valve. The single hand 
gauge is always connected to the main reservoir pipe. 
One-quarter inch pipe should be used. The duplex 
gauge is provided with two standard one-quarter inch 
nipples, one for main reservoir pipe and one for the 
train pipe, respectively, with a corresponding red hand 
for main reservoir pressure, and the black hand for 
train pipe pressure. In case illuminated gauges are 
used, the pipe connections are the same as described 
above, but a wire connection is made to the lamps of the 
gauge, which are usually connected in series with five 
of the standard 110 volt on a car where 550 volts are 
used. 


PIPING. 


The reservoir pipe connects the reservoir with the 
motorman’s valve, and is constantly subject to reservoir 
pressure. Cut-out cocks should be placed in this pipe, 
by means of. which the reservoir may be cut off from 
the operating valve whenever it becomes necessary to 
examine or remove the latter. Ordinarily the pipe con- 
nection for the main reservoir is one-half inch, being 
merely a continuation of the supply pipe. The train 
pipe extends from the motorman’s valve, to the brake 
eylinder. 

When trailer ears are used, a cut-out cock with flexible 
coupling is used at each end of the car, in order that the 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


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THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 183 


admission of reservoir pressure to the train pipe will 
send air to both the motor and trailer brake cylinders. 
Generally the train pipe connections are one half inch 
pipe, but for service where a number of trailers are 
used, this pipe should be three-quarter inch, or one inch 
in diameter. — 

The reservoir pipe connects the discharge opening of 
the compressor to the reservoir, and is always subject to 
the reservoir pressure. The pipe connection from the 
compressor to the main reservoir is three-quarter inch 
for the A-1, A-2, and A-4 compressors, and one inch ~ 
for BB-2, BB-4, CC-3 and DD-4 compressors, and is 
provided with insulation joint and union. ‘The in- 
sulating joint should be located as closely as possible 
to the reservoir, and should be placed in as nearly a 
vertical position as possible, and at the opposite end of 
the reservoir to the pipes leading to the motorman’s 
valve and governor. The governor pipe connects the 
main reservoir to the automatic governor. For the 
governor pipe, standard one-quarter inch pipe should 
be used, except in service where several trailers are 
used, when one-half inch pipe should be employed. An 
insulating joint is inserted in the pipe near the gov- 
ernor, which completely insulates the governor from 
any of the pipe which might become grounded. 

Long bends should be used whenever possible, to 
avoid friction losses. When bends must be made, the 
piping should be thoroughly blown out with steam, or 
air pressure before the pipe is put into service. All 
joints should be threaded with sharp dies, and the joint 
made with a good grade of shellac or japanned bronze 
applied to the male thread only. Tinning in molten 
solder may also be used. With proper care, a bottle 


134 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


tight joint is easily made. After connecting up all 
piping, full pressure should be pumped up in the reser- 
voir, with the motorman’s valve at release position. All 
piping should be hammered, and blown out, after which 
maximum pressure should be pumped up in the reser- 
voir, and tests for leaks made at the joint, and cut-out 
cocks. This may be done by applying soap suds. The 
piping should be installed in such a manner that there 
will be no sags, or pockets in which moisture might col- 
lect, and freeze. Care should be exercised to firmly 
clamp all piping to the car in order to prevent vibration 
thereby causing leaks to occur. 


WIRING FOR MOTOR COMPRESSOR OUTFITS. 


The wiring connecting the main trolley cireuit with 
the motor compressor should be installed with special 
precautions to avoid any possibility of grounds develop- 
ing after the car has been in service for a time. This 
wiring should be connected to the trolley wire at a point 
just inside of the location of the lightning arrester. As 
far as practicable the wiring should be run inside of the 
car, substantially cleated in place, and should always be 
so located that there will be no danger of injuring it 
when the car is being jacked up. Where the wiring is 
exposed underneath the car, or runs over iron, it should 
be covered with a good rubber tubing. 

The size of solid rubber covered wire used should be 
No. 12 B. & S. for A-1, A-2 and A-4 compressors, and 
No. 10 B. & S. for BB-2, BB-4, CC-3 and DD-4 com- 
pressors, when operating on standard railway voltages. 
Although smaller sizes of wire may be used without 
causing dangerous overheating, or heavy drop, they are 
too weak mechanically. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 135 


While the relative arrangement of the various parts 
of the equipment is fully shown in the diagram (Fig. 
68), the position at which the compressor circuit is to be 
connected to the trolley line must be decided on in each 
individual case. If the connection is made to the trolley 
line outside of the main switches, many advantages re- 








Jo TROLLEY 


SWITCH. 


SWITCH 


GOVERNOR 


COMPRESSOR 


sult, such as, for instance, preserving the electrical con- 
tinuity of the compressor circuit, should blowing of the 
main fuse occur, and current may be had in the com- 
pressor circuit when it is not desired on the controller. 
If connection for the motor compressor is made between 
the first main switch and the point where the light circuit 
is connected a very effective lightning arrester is made 


136 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


when the lamps are turned on during an electric storm, 
but a special arrester for the motor circuit will compen- 
sate for its slight extra cost as a protection to the com- 
pressor. 





Fig. 69. Snap Switch. 


The compressor switches should be located within con- 
venient reach of the motorman without requiring him 
to move out of his normal position. The partial en- 
closure of main switch under a shelter is recommended 
as a protection against rain, meddling by passengers or 
becoming caught by the trolley rope. 

The main switches are single pole, double nile snap 
switches of the indicating type ‘‘On and Off,’’ which 
slide behind a screen on the front of the cover and show 
whether the circuit is made or broken. 


FUSE BLOCK. 


The fuse block or base (Fig. 70) is made of a special 
grade porcelain and may be placed in a convenient and 
accessible point between the main switch and the gover- 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 137 


nor. It should be easily accessible with a screwdriver; 
the point selected should also be dry and free from any 
danger of ground connections. 

The fuse supplied is of the non-arecing type, fitted 
with a small wire on the outside to indicate whether the 
fuse has blown or not. The fuse block is provided with 
bayonet clips so that the fuse proper may be readily 
placed in position. 

























} 


ola-Nas 
: 3 


Sn Paar peel 
ASOT a Ten 










Fig. 70. Fuse and Base. 


MOTORMAN’S VALVE. 


Fig. 71 shows this valve with sander attachment. Fig. 
72 is a phantom view of the valve, showing to some ex- 
tent the interior arrangement of the parts. 

Referring to the sectional drawing (Fig. 74) the ap- 
plianee consists essentially of a sliding valve, 6, with 
ports on its lower face so arranged that they register at 
the proper time with suitable ports in the valve seat, 2, 
to make the necessary connections for the desired brak- 
ing applications. The valve seat contains three ports 
which connect with the main reservoir, brake cylinder 
and atmosphere respectively. The slide valve, 6, is 
manipulated by turning the eccentric spindle or stem, 4, 
by means of the removable handle, 7, which fits over the 


138 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


end of the valve stem at the opposite end of the eccen- 
tric; this handle moves through an are of about 120° in 
turning from release position at the extreme left, to emer- 





Fig. 71. Motorman’s Valve with Sander Attachment. 


eeney position at the extreme right. It is provided with 
a latch, 8, which engages with the notches in the top 
plate. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 139 








fe 
R 


72. Motorman’s Valve, Phantom View. 


140 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The handle can only be inserted or removed when the 
valve is in ‘‘lap’’ position, and the ports are blanked so 
that there is no connection whatever between any of the 


Brake Valve with Parts Separated. 


73. 


Fig. 





three ports in the valve seat. When the handle is re- 
moved the mechanism is securely safeguarded from tam- 
pering by passengers, by a protecting shield, 20, fitted 


141 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 


NID 


li 





= OY YOUU = 
v. 


(Oo. 
AROSE 


gst 


Aes 
a2 












































y 























Fig. 74. Sectional View of Motorman’s Valve. 


142 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


over the valve bonnet, 3, which prevents operation of the 
valve without the handle provided for that purpose. 
On the left side of the bonnet near the valve seat is lo- 
eated an oiling orifice which has a screw cover, 14, and 
a gasket, 15. The shaping and proportioning of this oil 
eup is such that it will contain sufficient oil for over 
150,000 applications of the valve. 


| EXHAUST PIPE 





TRAN PIPE 


Fig. 75. Positions of Operating Handle. 


The design of the sliding valve is such that it wears 
itself into position, adjusting itself to a proper seat with- 
out attention or repairs. The valve bonnet is screwed 
to the face, 2, by the Tee bolts, 12, which are fitted with 
nuts, 13. Fig. 75 illustrates the various positions of 
the handle corresponding to the registration of ports in 
the sliding valve and its seat. With the handle at the 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 143 


extreme left, the positions and operations that occur in 
moving the handle through its successive steps are as 
follows : 


QUICK RELEASE, OR EMERGENCY POSITION, 


An unobstructed passage, or port, in the slide valve 
provides a connection between the train line and atmos- 
phere through the slide valve. In this position a very 
quick release of brakes will oceur, due to the discharge 
of air through a large opening. 





Se 


Fig. 76. Valve Entirely Dissected. 


RUNNING POSITION AND SERVICE RELEASE. 


The brake cylinder is connected to the atmosphere 
through an opening of restricted size in the valve seat, 
which gives a graduated release of the brake. A spring 
actuated pawl arranged directly in the handle comes in 
contact with an offset on the motorman’s valve cap, and 
defines this position. The operating handle should be 
placed in this position when the car is running down 
grade, and the motorman has admitted a trifle too much 
air in the brake cylinder, thereby giving a slightly too 


144 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


strong an application of the brakes, and decreasing the 
speed of the car more than desired. By moving the 
handle to service release position, the brakes may be 
partially released by exhausting a small quantity of 
air, which reduces the pressure, while still retaining a 
considerable pressure in the brake cylinder when the 
handle is thrown back to lap position. This position is 
also employed in stopping the car, by gradually reduc- 
ing the pressure in the brake eylinder as the speed 
is reduced. This will give a smoother and more agree- 
able stop than if all the pressure is retained until the 
car comes to a dead stop. 


POSITION THREE, LAP POSITION. 


When the handle is moved to this position all ports 
in the valve seat and in the sliding valve are blanked so 
that there is no connection between any of the three ports 
in the seat: in this position only can the valve handle be 
removed. This position serves several purposes, the most 
important of which is that removal of the handle renders 
the valve neutral. It is also possible to apply the brakes 
with this valve, then move the handle to lap position, 
take it to the other end of the car and release the brake 
with the valve on that end. 


POSITION FOUR, SLOW SERVICE APPLICATION, 


With the handle in position for service stop, a connec- 
tion through a graduated port area is made from the 
main reservoir, and air under pressure is admitted gradu- 
ally into the brake cylinder, thereby making a gentle 
stop with just enough air to accomplish the work. This 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 145 


position is determined in a similar manner as the posi- 
tion for running and slow release application previously 
explained. The area of the admission openings in the 
National improved motorman’s valve have been consid- 
erably increased over formerly made types to meet the 
demand for quicker application of brakes due to heavier 
ears and higher speed. <A long and narrow triangular 
shaped groove has been made in the admission orifice to 
graduate the admission of air, which in most types of 
valves is admitted too suddenly. 


EMERGENCY APPLICATION. 


In this position the large and unobstructed port con- 
nects the main reservoir to the brake cylinder, allowing 
maximum pressure to apply full braking power almost 
instantaneously. Such application should never be made 
except in dire necessity. When making an emergency 
stop the rails should be sanded in order to obviate all 
possibility of sliding wheels, with a consequent bad stop. 


INSTALLATION OF THE MOTORMAN’S VALVE. 


The motorman’s brake valve should be attached to the 
vestibule framing, or dash rail, by means of the bracket 
for the stud and nut attached to the back of the valve 
for that purpose. Its position between the controller 
and hand brake should be such that the motorman ean 
readily rest his hand on the handle when in lap or re- 
lease position. The margin of space between the brake 
handle and controller should be sufficient to permit move- 
ment of the operating handle throughout its entire range 
without interference. 


146 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The best height for mounting the motorman’s valve is 
usually from 36 to 42 inches from the platform to the 
handle. In general the valve can be mounted on a hand- 
rail on an open end car, and at a convenient height in 
a vestibuled car. The lower end of the valve is pro- 
vided with three openings, two of which are equipped 
with unions for half-inch pipe. The one on the right in 
front, marked R, connects to the main reservoir pipe, and 
the one on the left in front, marked T, connects with the 
train pipe. The third opening in the rear, marked E, 
nearest to the supporting stud, is for the exhaust pipe 
to atmosphere. A pipe is connected to this last opening 
of such length as to extend beneath the platform, and 
if the noise of escaping air is objectionable, a muffler 
should be employed. A piece of pipe extending back un- 
der the platform of the car some six or eight feet is gen- 
erally sufficient to suppress the noise. 

The branches for the train pipe and main reservoir 
pipe are provided with union spanner nuts and brass 
ferrules; the latter should be screwed on to the end of 
the pipe until the pipe is just flush with the other side 
of the ferrule, which should be sweated on with solder. 
The end of the pipe should then be filed off even with 
the ferrule to form a smooth face for the union gasket 
and to ensure a good joint. 


MAINTENANCE OF THE MOTORMAN’S VALVE. 


The motorman’s valve should be taken apart and 
cleaned carefully in gasoline at intervals, depending on 
the severity of the service. The oil pocket in the valve 
contains a sufficient supply to allow about 150,000 app/i- 
cations of the valve, which is ordinarily equivalent to 


- 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 147 


six months of service. The sliding valve and its seat 
should be covered with a special grease of light body and 
minimum density. The slide valve is made with an oil 
reservoir in the upper side. Four small holes lead down 
from this reservoir to the valve face. These holes are 
located so that they are never uncovered by the ports, 





Fig. 77. Type CC-3 Compressor. 


with the result that the oil is fed down from the reser- 
voir only in a sufficient quantity to keep the valve seat 
well covered. To fill the reservoir, a small hole is 
drilled through the entire length of the valve stem. 
Oil poured in at the top of the stem drops direetly into 
the reservoir. The stem itself is oiled through an 
opening in the side of the casting enclosing it. 


148 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The difficulties of regrinding the seat, should it be- 
come necessary, are obviated by screwing the guides to 
the seat casting, instead of having them an integral 
part of this casting. On removing these guides the 
valve seat extends out beyond any other part of the 
easting, and this permits the seat to be surfaced in a 
lathe. To prevent the valve being placed on the seat 
in a reversed position one of the guides is made slightly 
higher than the other, so that the valve will not seat 
properly unless placed in the right position. 


THE NATIONAL TYPE ‘‘C’’ SANDER VALVE. 


A feature which is of the greatest importance in ob- 
taining proper operation of the air brake, assuring the 
oreatest possible negative acceleration of the car, and 
at the same time preventing the wheels from skidding 
with the consequent formation of flats, is the proper 
sanding of the track. This can be accomplished in the 
most economical way by the National Pneumatic Track 
Sanding Valve, which is designed to be fitted to the 
motorman’s valve. 

The arrangement of the track sanding valve directly 
above the motorman’s brake valve, as shown in Fig. 71, 
permits the motorman to apply sand to the track exactly 
when it is needed; and thus it will be evident that besides 
assuring a positive smooth stop, it also prevents the ex- 
travagant and wasteful use of sand, which it is impossi- 
ble to avoid with the majority of track sanding devices. 
Though this feature may at first appear of little im- 
portance, the element of cost is the least important to be 
considered, for many times a very serious accident may 
be avoided if sand is available to assist the brakes; it 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 149 


is well known to all railway officials that many serious 
accidents in the past have resulted from a lack of sand at 
the critical moment. 


NATIONAL EMERGENCY VALVE. 


The National emergency valves are designed to elim- 
inate the deficiencies of the straight air brake system by 
giving to it the automatic feature in case the cars in a 
train become separated, and also by placing the control 
of the brakes in the hands of the conductor, as well as 
in the hands of the motorman. It is claimed that these 
valves give all of the advantages of automatic air, with 
but few of its complications. 

In the sectional view of the emergency valve, Fig. 78, 
the body, 1, which is made of cast iron, encloses the 
operating parts of the valve and contains the three main 
ports, and the auxiliary port which connects with the 
main reservoir, auxiliary reservoir, the train pipe line 
and the emergency pipe line, as well as with the brake 
cylinder. The auxiliary reservoir is connected with the 
slide valve chamber and the main reservoir with the pis- 
ton chamber. 

The slide valve, 6, controls the three ports; the one 
to the left leads to the brake cylinder, the middle one is 
connected to the train pipe line and the port on the right 
connects with the emergency line. The drawing shows 
the valve in normal position for straight air operation. 
Pressures in the auxiliary and main reservoirs and in 
the emergency pipe line are equalized through the small 
port shown to the right of the slide valve, and the piston, 
and valve are held in position shown by the spring, 10, 
which exerts a pressure of about 15 pounds per square 
inch on the back of the piston. 


150 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The piston, 5, and the slide valve, 6, work in air cham- 
bers which are lined with special bushings, 3 and 4. 
The piston and the piston rod consist of the same cast- 
ing, which also secures the spring cap; 7, in position. 
The spring, 10, is adjusted by the flat-headed screw, 19, 
which in turn is locked by the hexagonal nut, 20. The 






=| 
di 





‘| Lue : a 











Fig. 78. Sectional Diagram of Emergency Valve. 


piston buffer, 9, is provided with a cover, 2, which is 
secured to the body, 1, by serews, 14. The piston is 
fitted with a packing ring, 8. The small set screw, 18, 
is used only when the emergency valve is applied to 
trailer cars. It is omitted when the valve is used on 
motor cars. The small set screw, 16, and spring, 11, 
keep the valve against its seat when there is no air pres- 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 151 


sure on the opposite side. Both ends of the valve are 
fitted with special gaskets, 12 and 13, which render it 
airtight. 

With the valve in normal position, air from the train 
pipe line enters the middle port, passes through the con- 
necting port in the valve, and enters the brake cylinder 
through the port to the left. 





Fig. 79. Valve Mounted on Brake Cylinder. 


Should the train separate, or the conductor pull the 
emergency valve, air escapes from the emergency line, 
and the pressure behind the piston is reduced. This 
causes the piston and valve to be pressed to the right by 
the auxiliary reservoir pressure in the slide valve cham- 
ber. When this occurs, 1. The port to the brake eylinder 
is uneovered and opened to the slide valve chamber, and 
as this chamber is connected to the auxiliary reservoir, 
the brakes are set by the equalization of pressures in 
the auxiliary reservoir, and the brake cylinder. 2. The 
train pipe line is connected direct to the emergency pipe 


hs ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


line from the slide valve, and the emergency pipe line 
is given an additional opening to the atmosphere. 3. This 
small port to the left of the valve seat is covered by the 
valve, and air is prevented from passing to the emer- 
gency line from the auxiliary reservoir. 4. The connec- 
tion between the main reservoir and emergency line is 
cut off by the seating of the small screw hole in the pis. 
ton, so that no air can pass into the emergency line from 
the main reservoir. To release the brakes after they 





Fig. 80. Valve Mounted on Bracket. 


have been set by the reduction of pressure in the emer- 
ceency line, the openings of this line to the atmosphere 
are first closed, and the motorman’s valve moved to 
emergency position; air then passes from the main res- 
ervoir through the motorman’s valve and train pipe 
lines into the emergency pipe line, which is connected to 
the train pipe line through the port in the slide valve. 
The increase of pressure in the piston chamber, which 
is connected to the emergency pipe line, and the pres- 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 1s) 


sure of the spring previously mentioned, cause the pis- 
ton and valve to move to their normal position. When 
this occurs, the motorman’s valve may be thrown to re- 
lease position, and the brake cylinder will be vented to 
atmosphere through the train pipe line, at the same time 
the connections are reéstablished between the emergency 
pipe ‘line, auxiliary and main reservoirs, and the pres- 
sures in these are equalized. 





Fig. 81. Showing Valve Complete and Valve Dissected. 


INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF EMERGENCY VALVE. 


The valve should be mounted on the emergency valve 
bracket, which is located at any convenient point under 
the car body. If a bracket is not used, a special head is 
provided on the brake cylinder on which the emergency 
valve is supported by four cap screws, 15. The piston 
packing ring should not be removed from the piston at 
any time. The flat head screw in the piston head is to 
be used only when the valve is applied to trailers. The 
hele should be left open when the valve is used on motor 
ears. In ease the valve is separated from the brake cyl- 
inder head or bracket, care shou!d be taken to keep the 
open ports protected from dust and dirt. When installed, 


154 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


the valve should be operated several times per week as a 
‘precaution that it is in proper working order at all 
times, whether required or not. When used on high- 
speed interurban cars it should be worked at the com- 
mencement of each trip. 


CONDUCTOR’S VALVE, 


The conductor’s valve is used as a safety device, ac- 
cessory to the emergency valve. The sectional view, Fig. 
84, shows clearly the construction of this valve. It con- 
sists of a malleable iron body, 1, enclosing the steel valve 
stem, 2. <A retractile steel spring, 3, is fitted in a recess 
in the lower portion of the cap nut, 4, which is serewed 
into the valve body. The spring presses against the 
stem, and holds the valve normally closed. A pull of 
the cord presses the lever, 5, against the end of the 
stem, 6, overcoming the resistance of spring, 3, and al- 
lowing a small amount of air to be vented from the pipe, 
thereby reducing the pressure in the emergency pipe 
line, and causing the latter to perform its function as 
previously described. 


INSTRUCTIONS FOR OPERATING NATIONAL STRAIGHT 
AIR BRAKES. 


The compressor is started by closing the snap switch, 
which allows current from the trolley circuit to flow 
through the switch and fuse, thence through the gover- 
nor, which is automatically closed by the current, then 
through the motor and thence to ground. The air com- 
rressor at once begins to operate and charges the main 
reservoir. The compressed air flows to the valve seat of 





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Motorman’s VALVE 


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FLATHEAD SCREW USED ON 
TRAILER ONLY HOLE OPEN 


RESERVOIR PIPE 


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RUNNING POSITION 








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BRAKE CYLINDER 


EMERGENCY PIPE 


EmMERGENCY Piee 





SERVICE POSITION 


Note :—To release after an emergency appli- 


EMERGENCY POSITION. 





ExPLaANaTioNn of TINTS 
(_____] AtmosPHERE 
() Main Resegvoin & TRAIN Pipe 


E mercency & Auxiliary MESERVO! 


cation throw handle to emergency position to 
equalize main reservoir and emergency pipe. 
Then throw handle to release position. 


Fic. 83. Diagram of National Emergency Valve Showing Valve in Running, Service and Emergency Positions. 


—> To ATmMosPHERE 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 105 


the motorman’s valve. The motorman’s valve is pro- 
vided with notches which indicate the position of the 
handle for the various operations of the valve. While 
it is a comparatively simple matter for a novice, by pay- 










Me 


il 


‘i 
c 


Ee 


















Fig. 84. Sectional View of Conductor’s Valve. 


ing attention to the notches, to operate the brakes after 
a fashion, quick, accurate and agreeable stops are only 
made after some practice. The personal equation enters 
so largely into the problem of operating brakes prop- 


156 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


erly and efficiently, that it is impossible for any consid- 
erable number of motormen to obtain equal results at the 
start. The practice which a careless or indifferent mo- 
torman may get into of ‘‘fanning’’ the brake handle is 
a pernicious habit and wastes air excessively, besides 
causing unnecessary wear and tear on the trucks and all 
other parts of the equipment. 

The operating valve handle must always be inserted 
at ‘‘lap’’ position, which is readily apparent from the 
enlargement of the slot in the top plate for that purpose, 
and withdrawn at the same position, when changing from 
one end of the car to the other; moving the operating 
handle to ‘‘lap’’ position causes the ports of the valve 
to be so connected that air can neither be admitted to or 
discharged from the brake cylinder. By turning the 
handle to the extreme left the valve is placed in ‘‘full 
release’’?; moving the handle to the right as far as the 
small notch opens the small port, and a further movement 
to the right opens the large port. 

A large quantity of compressed air will issue from a 
very small opening in a short interval of time, hence to 
apply the brakes lightly throw the handle to the small 
notch and immediately move it back to “‘lap’’ position. 
The air previously admitted to the brake cylinder is re- 
tained, thus keeping the brakes applied. Partial release 
of the brakes is effected by moving the handle to ‘‘release 
position’’ and quickly returning it to ‘‘lap,’’ which per- 
mits a portion of the air to be exhausted, reducing the 
pressure in the cylinder. 

To secure the quickest possible stop, the maximum 
pressure which will not cause skidding of the wheels 
should be applied throughout the stop, and the greater 
the speed the greater the pressure that may be applied 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE Lor 


without causing skidding. The coefficient of friction of 
brake shoes upon wheels varies from .27 at five miles 
per hour to about .10 at 60 miles per hour, hence to 
produce the same retarding effect at 60 miles per hour, 
about three times the pressure should be applied to the 
shoes at the higher speed, as could be safely applied at 
the lower speed. 

It follows generally that to stop a ear quickly, full 
operating pressure should be applied instantly, and graa- 
ually released as the car decelerates. A smooth and easy 
stop will also be produced by this method, as the sudden 
checking of speed which jostles passengers is prevented. 
To effect a ‘‘service stop,’’ therefore, admit from 20 to 
30 pounds of air pressure at once when commencing to 
stop, by partially opening the large port, and release it 
slowly step by step as the speed falls, retaining about 
ten or twelve pounds in the cylinder, until the car comes 
to a full stop. After a short experience a motorman will 
learn to gauge the distance necessary in which to effect a 
stop from a given speed, and thus make a smooth and 
agreeable stop with but one application of the brakes. 
An intermittent series of applications and releases while 
making a stop produces an annoying motion of the ear, 
wastes air excessively and is in every sense bad practice. 

In making an ‘‘emergency stop’’ apply full pressure, 
usually 60 pounds, at once, regardless of whether the 
controller is turned off, then apply sand and slightly 
release the pressure as the car decelerates. 

When the signal to start the car forward is received 
the handle should be moved to ‘‘release’’ position before 
power is applied to the car motors. A very common 
error with beginners is to apply the brakes too strong on 
commencing to descend a grade. On account of the mo- 


158 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


mentum of the car, and a certain mechanical inertia 
inherent in braking systems, the car will not instantly 
take the desired speed; apply the brakes lightly at first, 
keep the handle on ‘‘lap’’ notch, and wait a little for the 
speed to be checked. If then the car fails to slow up, 
admit a trifle more air and if the grade is long, continue 
the operation (if necessary) until off the grade. 

In putting a car in the barn or leaving same, the hand 
brake should always be set up to prevent persons from 
meddling with cut-out cocks. In taking a car from the 
barn first see that all the cocks are accurately set, and 
that there is sufficient air in the reservoir. Place the 
handle of the operating valve in position and move it 
around to ‘‘emergency,’’ then back to ‘‘release’’ to be 
sure that it works freely. To feel sure that wrong con- 
nections have not been made, test the brakes for opera- 
tion both in “‘service’’ and ‘‘emergenecy’’ positions; if 
these tests are satisfactory, and the proper pressure is 
supplied to the brakes, they may be depended upon to 
work properly. 


MAKING UP TRAILERS. 


In making up trains much care must be exercised in 
connecting hose couplings, so that there will be no escape 
of air. Open all cut-out cocks, excepting those on the 
rear of the last car and on the front of the motor ear. 
These must be closed. 

Before uncoupling the ears, close the cocks, and dis- 
connect the hose before taking out the drawbar pin. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 159 


PISTON TRAVEL. 


In air brake practice there are several terms used in 
connection with the travel of the piston: 1. The Stand- 
ing Travel is the distance the piston is forced outward 
in setting the brakes upon a car at rest. 2. Running 
Travel is the length or distance.the piston is forced 
out when the brakes are set upon a moving car. The 
running travel always exceeds the standing travel on 
account of the flexibility in brasses, the downward pull 
of the shoes upon the wheels, the play between boxes and 
pedestals, and to all the various factors which act to 
increase the lost motion in the brake rigging under the 
action of the car motion. Running travel is generally 
about 114 inches greater than standing travel. 3. False 
Travel is an abnormal length of piston travel caused 
temporarily by faults in track construction, or other un- 
usual stresses which may occur when the ear is in motion. 

The effect of a short piston travel is to cause a greater 
brake cylinder pressure, with a given reduction in train 
pipe pressure; for instance, a 15-pound reduction in 
train pipe pressure gives a brake cylinder pressure about 
40% higher with a 5-inech than with a 10-inch piston 
travel. 

To adjust piston travel so that there will be a very 
uniform setting of the brakes on each ear, it is necessary 
to employ an automatic slack adjuster. When this de- 
vice is not employed, the best practice is to make the 
standing piston travel six inches. 

Uniformity of piston travel upon the several cars in 
a train is of highest importance. Excessive length of 
piston travel causes a reduction in the brake cylinder 
pressure, with a proportionate lowering of efficiency. 


160 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Moreover, a greater consumption of air is brought about, 
which necessitates more frequent action of the com- 
pressor, and hence increased wear and strains. Exceed- 
ingly short length of piston travel will result in a drag- 
ging action of the brake shoes upon the wheels when the 
brakes are released; also there is danger of excessive - 
brake cylinder pressure, which causes skidding of the 
wheels when the brakes are set. 

A correct piston travel is obtained when there is just 
enough brake shoe clearance on release of the brakes. 
This length of travel is ordinarily six inches, as pre- 
viously stated. 


THE ENERGY CONSUMED IN BRAKING. 


The amount of energy stored in a moving train which 
must be dissipated by the brakes, is sometimes. quite 
large. The kinetic energy of a moving body is repre- 
sented by the equation E=14 M.V.2.. Where E =the 
energy expressed in foot pounds, that is the number of 
pounds raised one foot in one minute. M =the mass of 
the train (its weight in pounds) or wg where g== 
the acceleration due to gravity, which is 32.2 feet per 
second. V = velocity in feet per second. 

Miles per hour * 1.47 =the feet per second. 

To absorb this energy and bring a moving train to a 
stop, it is necessary to exert a force f over a distance d, 
which is expressed as e== p X d where p = pounds pres- 
sure applied to the brakes, d= distance in feet passed 
over before the speed becomes nil. 

If we substitute for m in the preceding equation its 


equivalent a both equations become equal to each other. 
g 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 161 


Ww v2 
2 ¢ f. 


Example :—A 40-ton car must be stopped from a 
maximum speed of 30 miles per hour on a perfectly 
straight track. In what distance will it come to a stop 
if the train resistance due to friction, wind pressure, etc., 
is 20 pounds per ton and the braking force applied is 
280 pounds per ton? 


40 2000 (801.47)? 
2X 32.2300 40 


Therefore, D = 





D= —268 feet. 


NATIONAL A. C. D. C. AIR BRAKE APPARATUS. 


The advent of the single phase electric railway system, 
and the adoption by numerous electrified sections of ex- 
isting steam railroads of single phase alternating current 
as motive power has necessitated radical changes from 
former standards in the car and other equipment, in- 
cluding the air brake apparatus, more specifically the 
motor compressor and the governor for same. 

The present tendency toward operating the interurban 
lines on single phase circuits, and running the cars into 
the heart of the city over the direct current city lines 
necessitates the building of apparatus of such design and 
construction as permits of its operation on both the di- 
rect, and alternating current circuits. The fundamental 
characteristics to be taken into consideration in design- 
ing single phase air brake apparatus are high efficiency, 
serviceability, and absolute reliability and freedom from 
breakdown at all times. To meet the exacting conditions 
of service required by modern high speed single phase 
electric railway operation the National Brake & Electric 


162 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 





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——————— (0) HOLLINS 


. THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 163 


Company has developed and perfected a class of ap- 
paratus that compares most favorably in all respects with 
its well known direct current air brake equipment. 


THE COMPRESSOR. 


The A. C. D. C. type of motor compressor manufac- 
tured by this company is the result of years of serious 
study, careful experimental work, and a thorough and 
intimate knowledge of the conditions and requirements 
of the electric railway braking art in its present day state 
of perfection. 

The compressor, in general appearance, resembles 
closely the company’s standard direct current machine, 
and is also of the entirely closed type, as may be seen 
by referring to Fig. 74. The motor and compressor are 
two distinct and separate units, and either one may be 
replaced without in any way interfering with the opera- 
tion of the other. 

The compressor proper, or air pump, is of exactly the 
same design and construction as that already described, 
and the instructions for inspection and maintenance 
already given (relating to the compressor and not to the 
motor) also apply to it. The capacity of this type of 
compressor is 25 eubie feet of free air per minute. 

The motor is of the four-pole commutator type, with 
two consequent poles, and is designed for operation on 
voltages ranging from 500 to 600 volts direct current 
circuit, and on voltages ranging from 280 to 340 volts 
alternating current 25 cycle single phase circuit. The 
motor has two distinct field windings, one for alternating 
eurrent and one for direct current. Laminated sheet 
steel pole pieces are used. The pole faces are provided 


164 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


with a compensating winding, which consists of four 
separate coils, which are short-circuited upon themselves. 
The motor frame consists of three parts, the motor base, 
the magnet frame and the motor cover. The motor cover 
is bolted to both the magnet frame and motor base. The 





Fig. 86. A.C. D. C. Compressor. Type BB-2. 


magnet frame is bolted to the motor base, and held in 
position by four cap screws, and is adjusted centrally 
with the armature, with reference to its vertical posi- 
tion, by means of shims, and laterally by means of ad- 
justing screws. 

The armature may be removed by taking off the motor 
cover, and removing the bearing cap, and cap screws 
which hold the magnet frame to the motor base, then 
lft the magnet frame and armature away from the base. 
The armature can then be taken out of the magnet frame 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 165 


with ease. Fig. 87 shows the compressor partly dis- 
mantled and the armature removed from the magnet 
frame. The field coils are removed by first removing the 
armature, and then taking out the four cap screws that 
hold the pole piece on to the magnet frame. The pole 
piece can then be pushed in towards the center line of 
the shaft far enough to permit the field being removed. 
This can be done without disconnecting the compensat- 





Big, 87.4 A. C).D:..C. Compressor Partly Dismantled. 


ing winding, as the latter is flexible and can be bent as 
the coil is pushed inward or back into place. So long 
as the adjusting shims and set screws are not disturbed 
the magnet frame can be put back into its original posi- 
tion without any further adjustment. 

The commutator is of high commercial quality hard- 
drawn lake copper, well proportioned and well insulated, 


166 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


with a liberal wearing depth and is designed for severe 
service. 

The brush gear is of the same distinctive construction 
as that used on the National direct current compressors, 
and differs from same mainly in the manner of fastening, 
and the number of brushes. The brush gear proper is 
securely fastened to a cast iron yoke made in two halves, 
which is secured in a groove running entirely around a 
projection of the armature bearing at the commutator 
end of the motor. Two sets of brush holders of two 
brushes each are used. The holders are fitted with an 
improved spring tension device, which is constant over 
a wide range of variation, and is also capable of an easy 
and correct adjustment. 

The very liberal insulation of this brush gear gives it 
a maximum protection against insulation troubles, as 
may be seen by the fact that the external leakage sur- 
face of this insulation is 114 inches. The inspection of 
the armature, commutator and brushes is rendered an 
easy and quick process by means of the inspection doors 
at the sides of the motor casing. 


METHOD OF STARTING COMPRESSOR. 


The compressor is started by throwing it directly on 
the full voltage, either alternating or direct current. A 
relay is provided for automatically making the connec- 
tions for running the motor either on alternating or di- 
reet current circuits, and is shown in Figs. 88 and 89. 
When the direct current circuit is closed the necessary 
connections for direct current operation are made by the 
solenoids of the relay attracting plungers to which are 
secured the contact pieces. When operating on the alter- 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 167 


nating current circuit these solenoids are not in circuit, 
and the contact carrier drops by its own weight and 
makes the necessary connections for operating on alter- 
nating current. The relay is entirely enclosed and is, 
therefore, protected from the elements. A diagram of 
connections is supplied with each compressor and relay, 
and the leads are all tagged so that no wrong connec- 
tions need be made. 





Fig. 88. Relay Complete. 


METHOD OF SUSPENSION. 


The compressor is suspended in a cradle under the car 
body in the same manner as shown in Fig. 38. This 
method of suspension allows the entire pump to be ex- 
posed to the cooling effect of the air at all times, and 


168 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


none of the parts of the suspension cradle obstruct the 
access to all parts of the compressor. The relay is 
mounted under the ear body with the compressor. 





Fig. 89. Relay Without Cover. 


The standard type ‘‘N’’ Oil Pneumatic Governor is 
furnished in connection with National A. C. D. C. Air 
Brake Equipments, and will operate equally as well on 
either direct or alternating current circuits. 


THE CHRISTENSEN AIR BRAKE. 


The Christensen air brake, while essentially a straight 
air brake system, may, like the National air brake, be 
made to operate automatically by the addition of the type 
J emergency valve. The Christensen air brake is manu- 
factured by Allis-Chalmers Company, of Milwaukee, 





Wis., and resembles in nearly every respect the National 
air brake. The Christensen motor compressors are classi- 
fied under the following heading: Type AAI, AA4, B2, 
C3, and D4. Figures 90 and 91 show end and side views 
of type AA4 compressor, and the following table gives 
dimensions, capacities, and other data relating to the 
different types of compressors : 
169 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


170 











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GIy, | 009 | 3416+! S<ho |- ee | 1 % 9 9°S OT PLT PX G| F-VV 
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THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE ibyat 





The diagram (Fig. 92) shows in colors the arrange- 
ment of the piping and other apparatus, and, by refer- 
ence to the numbers shown on the diagram, and the fol- 
lowing description, a clear idea of the layout of the equip- 
ment may be obtained: 

1. Electric motor-driven air compressor. 


2. Box. 
3. Cage for supporting box and compressor under a 
car. 


4. Insulating coupling. 

5. Reservoir for storage of the compressed air. 
6. Automatic electric governor. 

7. Cover for governor. 


mig ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


8. Insulating coupling. 
9. Non-areing enclosed fuse to protect the compressor 
motor. 

10. Brake cylinder with hollow piston rod and loose 
push rod so as to allow of the hand brake being 
easily applied through the same lever system. 

11. Pressure gauge. | 

12. Engineer’s valve for admitting air to, and releasing 
it from the brake eylinder. 

13. Handle for engineer’s valve. 

14. Cut-out cock for trailer connection. 

15. Hose and coupling for trailer. 

16. Switch. 

17. Whistle. 

18. Independent valve for whistle. 

19. Brake lever rigging. 

20, 21. Pipe and fittings. 


There are two cylinders for the compressor, each of 
which is fitted with a single-acting piston of the most 
approved construction. <A steel crank shaft, with cranks 
set at such an angle as to give the best balance to the 
moving parts, operates the connecting rods. 

The top of the compressor is formed by the base of the 
motor, and the gear (of the Herringbone type), which is 
keyed on the erank shaft, is enclosed in a cast iron casing. 
The noise of the gear and pinion is almost entirely elimi- 
nated, for the reason that the teeth are cut to mesh with 
an accuracy which insures smooth and quiet running. 
The working parts of the compressor are enclosed. Thor- 
ough lubrication of all the moving parts is effected from 
an oil reservoir in the base, supplied through an oil-filling 
elbow. The latter also gauges the proper height of the 


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DIAGRAM OF PIPING CONNECTIONS CHRISTENSEN STRAIGE AIR BRAKE. 


- ? 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE Lis 


oil in the casing. The reservoir communicates with the 
gear case, carrying oil up to the pinion on the armature 
shaft. | 


“HY? Governor, Christensen Air Brake. 


Type 


Fig. 93. 





In the cylinder heads the suction and discharge valves, 
of material and construction particularly adapted to the 
service required, work independently of each other. No 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


174 


‘ayRIg Iry uwsesusIsIIyO 


epIs) JOUIAAO*) 


em od4y, 





” 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 175 


springs are used in connection with these valves, which 
are seated by gravity and can be changed about, at need, 
providing the seats have worn equally. The cylinder 
head, valves, pinion or gear may be removed, at any time, 
without disturbing the other parts. 


MAIN RESERVOIR. 


The air, as fast as compressed, passes into a suitable 
reservoir (of seamless, cold-drawn steel), where its 
volume is kept within proper limits by means of an auto- 
matic governor regulating the supply. 


AUTOMATIC GOVERNOR. 


The governor (Figs. 93, 94 and 95), which starts and 
stops the compressor, consists of an ordinary pressure 
gauge mechanism with a special hand. Its operation is 
very simple, as follows: When the hand comes in con- 
tact with a small stud at the position of minimum pres- 
sure, it allows the current to flow through a magnet coil. 
A plunger to which the contact pieces for the motor cir- 
cult are attached is operated by the magnet coil, thus 
closing the circuit and starting the motor. When the 
pressure reaches the desired maximum, the hand strikes 
another small stud, thereby causing the current to pass 
through a second magnet. As soon as this magnet is 
electrified the plunger is impelled in the opposite direc- 
tion and opens the motor circuit. 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


176 


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UISU9}SIIYD ‘(MOIA OPIS) JOUIBAODD EG OdAL ‘GE ‘BIA 





THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 177 


THE ENGINEER’S BRAKE VALVE. 


The engineer’s valve, by means of which compressed 
air is admitted from the main reservoir to the brake 
cylinder, and thence discharged into the atmosphere, 













ai, 


=2=7g 
of = 17 9 
ay) 























Ci 
Fig. 96. Rotary Valve Type, Engineer’s Brake Valve, 
Christensen Air Brake. 


has been very carefully designed, so as to enable the 
motorman to manipulate it in a manner to secure the 
best possible results with the least consumption of air, 
also to make his stops without shock or jar. 


178 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


‘This valve is furnished in either the rotary plug type, 
or as a slide valve. Figure 96 is a sectional view of 
the rotary valve, and the numbers in the following 
description correspond to those in the drawing: 


STRAIGHT AIR ENGINEER’S VALVE. 


Rotary Type, 14-inch, 34-inch, 1-inch. 


PARTS. 
1. Base for rotary type. 
2. Seat for rotary type. 
3. Valve top for rotary type. 
4. Valve for rotary type. 
5. Valve stem for rotary type. 
TonUmonsnau 
8. Ferrule. 
9. Pipe gasket. 
10. Seat gasket for rotary type. 
11. Latch. 
12. Latch spring. 
13. Stem spring. 
14. Tee bolt and nut. 
15. Handle complete. 
16. . Guard. 
17. Serew for oil hole. 
18. Screw for guard, per dozen. 
19. Rotary valve, complete, less handle. 


Figure 97 is a sectional elevation of the slide valve 
type of engineer’s brake valve, the parts being num- 
bered and described as follows: 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 179 







Dr sassssasEeneeasen 
I NAYS 
[a 








N 
\ 
GV 
\ 











B- = 


Fig. 97. Slide Valve Type, Engineer’s Brake Valve, 
Christensen Air Brake. 


SLIDE TYPE. 
14-inch, 34-inch, 1-inch. 
PARTS. 
7. Union nut. 
8. Ferrule. 
9. Pipe gasket. 


180 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


TS eDaten: 

12. Latch spring. 

13. Stem spring. 

14.. Tee bolt and nut. 

15. Handle complete. 

16. Guard. 

17. Screw for oil hole. 

18. Serew for guard. 

19. Base for slide type. 

20. Seat for slide type.. 

21. Valve top for slide type. 

22. Valve for slide type. 

23. Valve stem for slide type. 

24. Seat gasket for slide type. 

20. Auxiliary slide for slide type. 
26. Slide valve, complete, less handle. 


_ AIR GAUGE. 


An air gauge is mounted near the engineer’s valve in 
such a position as to be easily observed by the motorman. 


BRAKE CYLINDERS. 


When the brakes neéd to be operated, air from the 
main reservoir is admitted, through the engineer’s valve, 
to the brake cylinder, which applies pressure to the shoes 
and thence to the wheels by means of suitable leverage 
mechanism. 

The brake cylinder is provided with a loose piston 
rod so arranged that when the hand brakes, and not the 
air brakes, are used the loose piston rod only is moved. 


we 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 181 


The pipe in which it slides is. fixed to the piston of the 
brake cylinder, which is held in release position by a 
spring. 





Fig. 98. Pneumatic Governor. 


PIPING. 


The necessary piping consists of two sections, viz. : 
the reservoir pipe, connecting the main reservoir with 
the engineer’s valve, and the train pipe leading from 
that valve, which runs the entire length of the car or 


182 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


train, hose couplings being used between cars. A stop 
eock at each end prevents the escape of air, when the 
opening is exposed. 





Fig. 99. Pneumatic Governor—Case. 


TYPE ‘‘OB’’ PNEUMATIC GOVERNOR. 


It is, of course, a recognized fact that the reliable 
operation of an air brake equipment depends largely 
upon the governor, which, by automatically controlling 
the compressor, maintains the supply of air at any pres- 
sure required. 

The type ‘‘OB’’ pneumatic governor furnished with 
the Christensen motor compressor, a view of which is 
given in figure 98 is shown in section in figure 100. 

The main body, 1, contains a compression spring, 4, 
and piston, 3, upon which the air pressure acts. The 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 183 


cap, 2, is machined to receive and secure the diaphragm, 
5; it is bolted to the main body and tapped for pipe 
to connect to the main reservoir. The cap is so ar- 









— 



















SO 














TO TROLLEY 
4, 
‘“ 


y G OLE 
ASO 


Wa, 
i 












N 
N 
AN 
N 
‘ 
NY 
hy 
N 

















WW A 









Wi 
YY 
SY 
WN 





ae 


Fig. 100. Details of Type “OB” Governor. 
(In reverse position from that shown by Fig. 98.) 


ranged that pipe connections may be brought from any 
side to the governor, which is in direct communication 
with the main reservoir, 


184. ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The diaphragm, 5, is made of pure rubber, specially 
prepared, insuring long life and flexibility, and avoid- 
ing the leaks that so commonly oceur where piston pack- 
_ ing rings, or leather gaskets are used. The piston and 
rod, 3, are made of steel. The compression spring, 
4, which is inelosed within the main body, and well 
protected against tampering, acts upon the piston. The 
pressure is varied by adjustment of screws, 7, acting 
upon the spring washer, 6, whereby the spring may be 
compressed or relieved to suit requirements. The pis- 
ton rod end is so shaped as to engage with a trip 
hammer, 8, and moves this over the center position 
past the pivot point, 9. When the pressure in the cap 
chamber above the diaphragm increases, the piston, 3, 
is forced downward, compressing the spring, 4. 

The hammer, 8, being forced by the piston rod past 
the dead center, and aided by a spring, 13, in housing, 
11, delivers a sharp blow to the yoke, 9, carrying the 
contact blades, 16, through which the circuit is opened 
and closed, which are made of bronze metal and well 
insulated, against short circuit or ground. The copper 
tips, 14, are quickly separated and the are completely 
extinguished ‘by the powerful magnetic field. These 
contact tips are of liberal area, presenting large radi- 
ating surface. A separating shield prevents any pos- 
sibility of the are jumping across when the circuit is 
broken. 

As the air pressure is reduced, the compressed spring, 
4, at once commences to return to its former position; 
the piston rod, 3, again comes in contact with the trip 
hammer, 8, and reverses the movement of the latter; 
the yoke, 9, being carried over the center line of pivot 
point by the hammer, retuvns with a snap, aided by 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 185 


springs 13 and 15, and eloses the circuit. This quick 
return is important, as it prevents arcing and gives a 
wiping effect to the contact tips. The yoke is firmly 
held in either position by the tension spring, 15, and, 
in addition, is securely locked by the trip hammer, 8. 

The quick brake mechanism is mounted upon a sub- 
stantial brass frame, 12, and securely fastened to the 
main body, 1. The blowout coil, 16, and chute, 20, are 
mounted upon an insulating block, 19, which in turn, 
is attached to the frame, 12. 

The small tension springs are protected by _ brass 
tubing, and are interchangeable, without affecting the 
accelerating action of the mechanism. 

The electric terminals, 22, are brought out through - 
the governor body and are well insulated by means of 
insulating bushings. They may be connected to either 
side of the line. 

All pins and moving parts are made of hard brass, 
thus preventing corrosion. No lubrication to moving 
parts is necessary. ‘The mechanism is protected against 
dust and water by a neat, light and strong cover, easily 
removable, which permits free access to_ the moving 
parts. gets 

The variation of maximum and minimum pressure is 
accomplished by the adjustment of set screws, 7. The 
governor may be set between the pressure of sixty-five 
and ninety-five pounds, with an operating margin of 
ten pounds. For example, the governor can be ad- 
justed to cut out at eighty-five pounds pressure, and 
it will automatically cut in and start the compressor 
when the pressure drops to seventy-five pounds. 

Care should be exercised in connecting the governor 
to the air reservoir. The piping must be earried 


186 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


directly from reservoir, and insulation coupling inserted 
in the line. 

The governor will operate successfully in any posi- 
tion, and can be mounted below the cars or under a car 
seat. It occupies a space of 12 inches in height, 7 
inches in length and 514 inches in width. 

Figure 101 shows the various parts of this governor. 





Fig. 101. Parts of Pneumatic Governor. 


1—Adjusting Screw. 11—Bolts. 

2—Carrier Shaft. 12—Rubber Diaphragm. 
3—Pins. 183—Diaphragm Cap. 
4—Cap Screw. 14—Diaphragm Spring. 
5—Spring Housing. 15—Carrier Frame. 
6—Springs. 16—Plunger. 

7—Nuts. 17—Magnetic Blowout. 
S—Knock-off. 18—Body. 

9—Contact Carrier. 19—Cover, 


10—Spring Washer, 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 187 


TYPE ‘‘J’’ EMERGENCY VALVE. 


* The principal advantage of the straight air brake 
system lies in its simplicity and in the fact that the 
brakes may be applied and released gradually; but it 
has one serious defect, for, when two or more cars are 





Fig. 102. Emergency Valve and Supporting Bracket. 


run in a single train having this equipment, if the train 
should break apart, the brakes would not be applied 
automatically. Moreover, in the ordinary straight air 
system the control of the train is in the hands of the 


188 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


motorman alone, whereas with the automatic system the 
brakes can be applied by the conductor in ease of emer- 
gency from any one of the cars in the train. | : 

The Christensen Air Brake system has, like the ' 
National Air Brake, an emergency valve attachment, by 
the use of which, in connection with the straight air 
system, practically all of the advantages of the auto- 
matic system may be realized. The working parts of 
the emergency valve (type J) are few in number, 
consisting merely of a slide valve operated by a piston 
and a release spring moving in the air chamber. The 
train pipe is required as a part of the equipment only 
in cases where the motor car pulls trailers on which 
there is no controlling apparatus. Where two or more 
motor cars, or the motor and the trailer car are provided 
with a controlling device, no additional hose connections 
are required, as in such cases it is only necessary to 
connect all reservoirs by means of an auxiliary hose in 
addition to the one provided for the straight air 
brake train pipe. The manner of applying the straight 
air brake, when equipped with the emergency valve, 
remains unchanged, since there is an unobstructed 
opening between the straight air train pipe and the 
brake cylinders when the emergency valve is in released 
position. 

A passage between the main reservoir and the emer- 
gency line is provided to maintain, throughout the 
train, pressure in the latter equal to that in the main 
reservoir, while pressure is being raised in the main 
reservoir by the compressor. An additional orifice 
between the main reservoir and the emergency line, 
connecting the latter to the slide valve chamber, while 
being in direct communication with the auxiliary 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 189 


reservoir, also keeps the auxiliary reservoir charged to 
the same pressure as the emergency line and main 
reservoir. 


CONSTRUCTION OF THE EMERGENCY VALVE. 


The Type J emergency valve, illustrated in detail in 
figures 103 and 104, consists of a cast iron body, 1, 
having a brass bushing with ports, 5, communicating 











FROM RESERVOIR 
On MOTOR CAR 


TO AUXILIARY 
RESERVOIR ON 
TRAILER CAR 


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Jes 


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Sl 


CLLLLLLLLLLA LLL AMAL 


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LLL 


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=e Ee 






RESERVOIR al 


Fig. 103. Valve in Running Position. 


with their respective pipe connections. The body is 
machined to receive the piston 3, and the slide valve, 4. 
A regulating spring, 6, is located inside of the piston 
chamber, resting against a compressing pin, 7, which 
in turn is secured by the cap, 8. 


190 ELECTRIC. RAILROADING 


A suitable cap, 2, provided with a leather gasket, 
encloses the working parts. This cap is secured to the 
body by three bolts. All working parts are rendered 
easily accessible by removing the cap from the body. 



















wy “> mI Wl 
a KKK 


= = Ve LLL LEE 


Slant 


LNCS Wh \ KKK 








met WN 


(vb 
(ee 





“<E 


Fig. 104. Valve in Emergency Application. 


APPLICATION OF EMERGENCY VALVE, 


Fig. 103 shows the emergency valve in its ordinary 
position in a straight air equipment. Ports B and C 
are in direct communication with the brake cylinder 
and engineer’s valve. Ports A, B, C and E are con- 
nected with their respective lines. On a motor car 
port E is connected to the main reservoir. The air 
from the main reservoir passes through port E into a 
circular chamber F, and through restricted opening D 
into A. In chamber A the air divides, passing through 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKB 191 


channel G into chamber H behind the piston, 3. At 
the same time air travels through A to the emergency 
line and through a flexible connection to trailer cars, 
entering each respective valve at port A, filling cham- 
bers A and H, passing on through opening D into 
chamber F, and then through E to charge the auxiliary 
reservoir. 

Fig. 104 shows the valve in emergency application. 
Upon a reduction of pressure in the emergency line, 
due either to the opening of the conductor’s valve, or a 
parting of connections, piston 3 will be forced back 
against cap 2, carrying with it shde valve 4, uncovering 
port B and closing port D. Air will rush from the 
reservoir through port B into the brake cylinder, and 
bring the ear to a full stop. 

The release of pressure from the brake cylinder is 
brought about by balancing the pressures on both sides 
of the piston, 3. This is accomplshed by charging the 
train with the main reservoir pressure, admitting air 
to the emergency valve through the port C, passing it © 
on through the cavity in the slide valve, 4, into chamber 
Al and restoring the pressure in chamber H. When 
the pressure has been balanced the piston, 3, and slide 
valve 4, aided by the spiral spring, 6, will return to 
normal position, uncovering port D, and permitting 
the auxiliary reservoir to be replenished, and equalized 
with the main reservoir. 

Port B will register through the cavity in the slide 
valve, 4, with port C, and communicate directly with the 
engineer’s valve release port, whereby the brake cylinder 
will be relieved of all pressure. 


192 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


OPERATION OF THE EMERGENCY VALVE. 


Should a conductor’s valve be opened, or the train 
become disconnected, air is allowed to escape to the 
atmosphere from the emergency line. The escape of 
air causes a rapid reduction of pressure on that side 
of the piston towards the emergency line, and thus un- 





Fig. 105. Parts of Type J Emergency Valve. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 193 


balances the pressure, the result being that the greater 
pressure in the auxiliary reservoir forces the piston 
and slide valve to the extreme length of their travel. 
This causes the emergency valve to effect the following 
combinations : 

1. The reservoir is disconnected from the emergency 
line, and is connected directly to the brake cylinder 
through a large orifice, which results in an instant 
equalization of the pressure in the brake cylinder and 
the auxiliary reservoir, thereby causing maximum 
brake pressure to be applied almost instantaneously, 
since the supply of air from the auxiliary reservoir has 
a much shorter distance to flow to reach the brake 
cylinder than is the case when it must travel from the 
main reservoir through the main air pipe, as in regular 
straight air brake systems. 

2. The opening from the main reservoir to the emer- 
gency line is closed by the piston when it has trav- 
eled the full length of its stroke, which permits no escape 
of reservoir air through the open emergency line. 

When ears are first coupled, the reservoir on the 
motor car should be filled up to full pressure, and the 
engineer’s valve then thrown over to emergency posi- 
tion. In this position all auxiliary reservoirs will be 
rapidly charged. When all reservoirs are equalized the 
engineer’s valve must be thrown to release position. 
After this operation, a full and direct opening has been 
established between the brake cylinder and the en- 
gineer’s valve, and the emergency valve will remain 
mactive during straight air applications. 

To release the brake cylinder and return the emer- 
gency valve to straight air position after an emergency 
application, the engineer’s valve must be thrown to 


194 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


emergency straight air application, so as to equalize the 
emergency line and main reservoir, and then returned 
to release position. This operation will return the 
emergency valve to normal running position. 

In order to simplify piping, a special bracket is 
bolted to the car body to which the various pipes are 
connected. This also enables the emergency valve to be 
removed for cleaning and inspection without disturb- 
ing any of the connections. To avoid wrong connec- 
tions the bracket is marked with raised letters. 

The following apparatus constitutes a complete 
equipment for one motor and one trail car: 


MOTOR CAR. 


Motor Driven Air Compressor. 

34” Insulating Hose for Compressor. 
Suspension Box and Cage. 

Automatic Governor. 

1,” Insulator. 

Fuse and Base. 

Switches. 

Engineer Valves and 1 Handle. 

Main Reservoir with Cradles and Hangers. 
Air Pressure Gauges. 

Brake Cylinder. . 

Emergency Valve. 

Hose Couplings. 

Dummy Couplings. 

Stop Cocks. 

Conductor’s Valve if desired. 


OT Sn SO oe NO No 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 195 


TRAILER. 


1 Brake Cylinder. 
1 Emergency Valve. 
1 Auxiliary Reservoir. 
4 Hose Couplings. 
4 Dummy Couplings. 
4 Stop Cocks. 
Conductor’s Valve if desired. 


DRAWING. 


(1) Section of Valve. 
(2) Diagram of Equipment for 2 ears. 


GENERAL ELECTRIC CO.’S AIR BRAKE 
STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE EQUIPMENT 


In the straight air brake system the brake cylinder 
is connected directly to the motorman’s valve through 
the train pipe without intervening valves. The brakes 
are positively operated by the flow of air to and from the 
motorman’s valve, being applied by an inerease in the 
train pipe pressure and released by a corresponding 
reduction of this pressure. As a consequence, when the 
brakes are fully released there is no air in the train pipe. 

The straight air brake system is specially adapted 
for single car operation, but may also be used if desired 
with a motor car and trail car, or two motor cars provided 
with multiple unit control. Hose couplings, cut-out, 
stop, and angle cocks are provided in such cases. When 
this system is used with trailers the brakes are not 
automatically applied if a hose coupling separates, or the 
train parts, and the safety obtained by its use is, there- 
fore, not so great as that afforded by the emergency 
straight, or automatic air brake systems. 

The general arrangement of this equipment is shown 
in Fig. 106. 

The straight air brake equipment comprises the 
following parts :— 

1: Motor driven air compressor. 
2: Suspension cradle. 
3: Governor. 
4: Switch and fuse. 
196 


197 


AIR BRAKE 


THE STRAIGHT 


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198 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


5: Motorman’s valves. 

6: Brake cylinder. 

‘Coy esery oir, 

8: Safety valve. 

9: Pressure gauges. 

10: Cut-out, stop and angle cocks. 

11: Hose couplings where trailers are used. 
12: Whistle. 

13: Exhaust muffler. 


AIR COMPRESSOR 


The air compressor is directly mounted on two oak 
planks supported in a cradle made of wrought iron bars. 
The cradle is suspended beneath the car from the floor 
beams. 

The air compressor consists of two cylinders, with 
single-acting pistons connected to one erank shaft which 
is driven by an electric motor through herringbone gears. 
The eranks are 180 degrees apart so that one piston is 
compressing while the other is drawing air into the 
eylinder. 

The motor has four poles, is series wound and entire- 
ly enclosed. The frame is of cast steel made in one 
piece with a removable head on one end, of sufficient 
size to permit the armature to be drawn out of the field. 
The pole pieces are bolted to the frame which forms part 
of the magnetic circuit. There are two brush-holders, 
each rigidly secured to, but insulated from, the motor 
frame. 

The motor brush-holders can be adjusted to the 
wear of the commutator by unscrewing the clamping 
bolt at the end of the stud, which allows the brush- 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 199 


holders to move towards, or away from the commutator. 
The holder should be set to within }” of the commutator. 

The motor commutator should be kept clean and 
inspected when the motor is running, to see that the 
brush tension is right and there is no flashing. If the 
commutator becomes rough, the armature should be 
taken out, and if necessary the commutator should be 
turned. After turning, it must be smoothed off with 
medium fine sandpaper to remove any ridges left by the 
turning tool. 





Fig. 107. Air Compressor in Cradle. 


TO REMOVE ARMATURE: Unbolt top and bottom halves 
of gear case from the frame, and remove gear case; then 
remove the gear and pinion, and motor frame head and 
brushes, leaving the armature free to be taken out. 

In order to remove gear and pinion, gear and pinion 
pullers should. be provided. The gear puller is a short 
piece of steel bar, with two holes drilled in it, whose dis- 
tance apart is equal. to that between the tapped holes in 
the gear hub. The pinion puller is a similar piece of 


200 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


steel with its holes drilled to correspond with those 
tapped in the pinion hub. 

To start the gear, first flatten down that portion of 
the lock-washer which is bent up, care being taken not 
to jam the gear teeth in so domg. Then take off the 
clamping nuts and lock-washers. When this has been 
done holes will be seen tapped in the gear hub. Place 
the gear puller against the end of the gear shaft, and 
serew two bolts into the tapped holes, through the holes 
in the puller until sufficient tension has been produced 
to start the gear from the tapered shaft. Perform 
similar operations on the pinion. The gear and pinion 
can then be withdrawn together. 





Fig. 108. Motor Driven Air Compressor. 


The gear or pinion may not always loosen when the 
bolts are screwed up tight, but in such cases it will be 
found that a slight tap with a hammer on the puller 
will generally accomplish the desired result. 

Armatures must be taken out of the motor frame 
centrally to prevent rubbing and consequent injury to 
the insulating materials. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 201 


THE AIR COMPRESSOR comprises the following main 
parts: A crank case and two horizontal cylinders cast 
in one piece; a casting forming the two cylinder heads 
and containing the intake and discharge valves; a top 
erank case cover; a crank shaft; two pistons; two piston 
rods and the necessary crank shaft bearings. The gear 
end of the crank shaft is contained in a removable 
housing, so that the crank shaft can be readily drawn 
out. The intake and discharge valves are tubular, oper- 
ating in a vertical position and are removable. 


The connecting rods are provided with adjustable 
bearings for the crank pins. If a bearing is worn suffi- 
ciently to become loose, it can be tightened by removing 
one of the thin washers. Loose crank pin bearings some- 
times cause pounding, but this is generally produced 
by damaged gears. If pounding occurs, examine the 
gears first for trouble, and do not tighten the bearings 
except when necessary. When taking up bearings, be 
eareful not to get them too tight. 


THE BEARINGS: The compressor is supplied with 
waste packed oil bearings, with the exception of the 
erank and wrist pin bearings. 

To oil the crank shaft and wrist pin bearings, the 
erank case must be filled with oil through the filling 
elbow located on the side of the compressor frame. 
When the crank shaft rotates, the connecting rod heads 
strike the oil and splash it over the inside of the crank 
case, and such parts of the cylinders as are exposed, 
lubricating the crank shaft bearings, wrist pins and 
cylinders. In addition to the splash lubrication, small 
oil pumps are attached to the connecting rods, so as to 
lubricate these parts should the oil become low in the 


202 . ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


erank case. The crank chamber must be replenished 
with oil once every month. 

The four waste-packed bearings should be replen- 
ished with oil once every week. Only a small amount 
of oil should be put in at one time, two cubic inches be- 
ing sufficient for each bearing. When oiling these bear- 
ings, the waste should be pushed down so as to make sure 
that it is touching the shaft. If the catch-basins are 
found to fill with oil, or to contain an appreciable amount 
of oil, too much oil has been put into the bearings, and 
the amount given to each can be safely reduced. 

Compressors are sent from the factory with the 
bearing pockets packed with dry wool waste. Before 
starting the compressor, this waste should be removed 
and soaked in oil for twenty-four hours, to thoroughly 
saturate it. The oil can then be squeezed out and the 
waste put back into the bearings. The regular amount 
of oil can then be poured in on the top of the waste 
and the bearings are ready for use. 

In putting the waste into the bearings it must be 
packed in tight, and must extend to the bottom of the 
pockets. The skein of the waste should be straightened 
out and folded before insertion so that the strings he 
vertically parallel to one another when in place. 

VALVES: ‘Two valves are provided in the head of 
each cylinder,—an Intake Valve and a Discharge Valve. 
The intake valve allows air to enter the cylinder but 
prevents it passing out. The discharge valve permits 
air to pass out of the cylinder but prevents its return. 

The intake valves (outside valves) are provided with 
a small vent hole in the bottom. The discharge valves 
(inside valves), are provided with a small vent hole in 
the side. These valves must not be interchanged, 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 203 


Valve seats must be clean in order to have the com- 
pressor work to the best advantage. The valves, how- 
ever, should not be touched, unless it is certain that they 
are not operating properly. 

When a valve is removed, both the retaining pocket 
and valve should be washed with gasolene. The retaining 
pocket can be easily cleaned with a piece of cloth satu- 
rated with gasolene wound on the end of a stick. Waste 
or yarn must not be used for this purpose, as strings and 
lint are liable to be left in the pocket which may give 
trouble later. Before replacing valves all particles of 
dust should be carefully wiped off the valve seat. 

The improper working of valves can easily be recog- 
nized from the sound made in operation. If the intake 
valve sticks, or does not properly seat, the escaping air 
ean be plainly heard, and it will be noticed that the air 
compressor runs at a higher speed than normal. If the 
discharge valves stick or do not properly seat, the motor 
will be observed to be running slower than normal, and 
to be laboring under an overload. This increase of 
load is due to the air from the receiving tank filling the 
cylinders, and producing a constant high pressure on 
the pistons. It will also be noticed that the intake 
valves are silent, and are not opening, as the pressure 
inside the cylinders is never equal to, or less than atmos- 
pherie pressure. 

Valve trouble is infrequent. The incoming air is 
drawn through a strainer box containing curled hair, 
and copper screens, to purify it before admission to the 
valves. The valves will generally give no trouble if 
the strainers are kept clean. They should be inspected 
from time to time to see if they are clean; in dusty or 
dirty weather this should be done every month, To clean 


204. ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


the strainers, take out the two bolts which hold the 
strainer box to the cylinder head; clean the copper 
screens and curled hair. The old hair can be cleaned by 
washing it in gasolene. 

DIRECTION OF ROTATION: Air compressors are sent 
out connected so that the rotation of the armature will 
be in the proper direction. The motor armature must 
always rotate so that the top side of the commutator 
moves toward the observer when viewed through the 
inspection door. 

UNDUE FRICTION in the air compressor is frequently 
the cause of the compressor motor fuse blowing. To 
locate the trouble examine the discharge valves to see if 
they stick, and all bearings to see if one is running hot. 

PERCENTAGE OF TIME IN OPERATION: Under normal 
service conditions, the compressor should not operate 
more than a total of half the time the car is in service, 
unless there is an excessive leakage in the air brake 
piping. 

The pipe connecting the compressor to the reservoir 
should be free from pockets where moisture might col- 
lect and cause trouble due to freezing * 

SUSPENSION CRADLE: Illustrated by Fig. 107, is de- 
signed to allow the compressor to be removed without 
disturbing the bolts holding the cradle to the car body. 

TO REMOVE AN AIR COMPRESSOR: If space allows, take 
out the holding down bolts, and then slide the compressor 
off the plank forming the base of the suspension cradle. 
If this cannot be done take out the four bolts holding 
the suspension hangers to the longitudinal bars which 
are permanently bolted, or lagged to the car frame. The 

*This pipe should be 1 inch in diameter in the case of the CP- 
22 compressor and ¥% inch in diameter in the case of the CP-21 
compressor. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 203 


suspension cradle can then be moved towards the center 
of the car until it clears the longitudinal bars, when 
it ean be dropped down. 

The suspension cradle should be located so that di- 
rection of the compressor armature is across the car, 
and the intake screens must be protected as much as 
possible from wheel wash. 


GOVERNOR 


The Governor may be placed in an upright, or in- 
verted position, either under a seat, inside the ear, or in 
some protected location underneath the car, but it must 
be insulated from grounded portions of the car framing. 
It should be placed as near as possible to the main res- 
ervoir, to which it must be directly connected. Do not 
connect the governor to any pipe from the reservoir to 
the compressor, or to the reservoir line. The pipe con- 
nection should be as short as possible, and should drain 
towards the reservoir to prevent accumulation, and 
freezing of moisture. 

The working parts of the governor are clearly shown 
in Fig. 109, which should be referred to in the following 
description. 

The function of the governor is to start or stop the 
compressor motor whenever the pressure falls below or 
rises above certain predetermined pressures. The dif- 
ference between these pressures is usually 10 lbs. The 
governor diaphragm A is held in place by adjusting 
spring C against the varying pressure of the air. When 
this pressure exceeds a certain amount, the diaphragm 
is forced down carrying with it piston rod D which 
turrs lever E around its fulerum F. This brings the 
pivot H above the center line of the tension springs J, 


206 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


which connect the intermediate lever G with the contact 
earrying lever K. The action of these springs then pulls 
the end of the intermediate lever down, carrying the cen- 
ter line of the springs past the pivot P. The action of 
these springs on the contact carrying lever K is then 



































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VALLI LL LLL LLL 





























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lf 


ZL 
WS 
WS 


SG 
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Fig. 109. Governor—Sectional View. 


reversed, and the end of the lever is drawn downwards 
separating the contacts M and N with a quick snap, thus 
opening the motor circuit. This double system of levers 
is used to maintain a constant pressure between the con- 
tacts, until the tripping point is reached, thus prevent- 
ing burning of the contacts. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 207 


As the pressure in the chamber above the diaphragm 
is reduced, piston rod D raises the back end of the 
lever E, engaging a projection of the latter with the 
intermediate lever G. The center line of the tension 
springs J is carried by this movement above the pivot 
of the contact carrying lever K. The contact finger 
is then pulled upwards by the action of the tension 
springs, and the circuit is quickly closed. 

The magnetic blow-out on the upper part of the are 
chute extinguishes the are formed at the contacts, when 
opening the motor cireuit. The are chute is made of 
molded insulation, and can readily be renewed, if neces- 
sary. 

All standard governors are adjusted for an opening 
pressure of 65 lbs. per square inch, and a closing pres- 
sure of 55 lbs. per square inch. The opening pressure 
may be increased up to 100 lbs. and the closing pressure 
to 90 lbs., by screwing in the adjusting screws for the 
spring C. To adjust the opening and closing pressure, 
first remove the locking screw and washer at the side 
of each of the two adjusting screws, then turn both 
adjusting springs an equal amount (to prevent binding 
the operating spring), until the proper adjustment is 
obtained. 

To renew the rubber diaphragm, the cylinder head 
should be removed by unscrewing the four tap bolts 
holding it to the frame. When inserting a new dia- 
phragm, see that the bolt holes in the diaphragm ree- 
ister with the corresponding holes in the cylinder head. 
A worn out diaphragm is easily detected by the govern- 
or opening at an increased pressure, and also by its 
ereater operating range. To remove the operating spring 
from the governor, relieve its tension before removing 


208 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


the retaining ring located next the rubber diaphragm. 
If the tension is not relieved, the retaining ring is like- 
ly to be thrown off with considerable force, due to the 
sudden release of the spring when the retaining ring 
screws have all been removed. 

Governor contact tips should be inspected from time 
to time, and cleaned with sandpaper when necessary. 
To remove the contacts, unscrew the countersunk head 
screws holding the tips to the base. The spring carrying 
the contact tips must also be inspected to see that the 
proper wiping action takes place. The amount of this 
wiping should be }’”. 

As there is no air circulation through governors 
they are seldom affected by moisture freezing in them. 
In cold, damp climates, however, governor action some- 
times becomes sluggish due to moisture freezing around 
the edges of the diaphragm. To prevent this, govern- 
ors should be taken apart, and the chamber between 
the cylinder head and diaphragm thoroughly cleaned 
once a year, in order to remove all traces of moisture. 
The cleaning should be done in the fall of the year 
before winter sets in. 

When installing the governor, see that the cable 
leading to the movable contact has not been pulled 
through too far, so as to interfere with the operation of 
the levers. 


COMBINED SWITCH AND FUSE 


The switch is provided for starting, or cutting out 
the compressor motor when desired, and the fuse is used 
for protection in case of short circuit or excessive over- 
loads. The switch has a magnetic blow-out for ex- 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 209 


tinguishing the are, if the motor is taking current when 
the circuit is broken. The fuse is of the enclosed type, 
and of proper capacity. It can be readily removed by 
opening the cover and pulling out of the clips. 

The switch and fuse should be placed in the positive 
side of the circuit, and the line lead must be connected 
to the contact in the upper left hand corner of the 
switch. The wire leading to the compressor should not 
be smaller than No. 12BS cable. 





Fig. 110. Combined Switch and Fuse. 


MOTORMAN’S BRAKE VALVE 


This valve in its simplest form is a three-way valve. 
The three positions are respectively—Application, Lap 
and Release. 

APPLICATION POSITION :—The valve admits air from 
the main reservoir to the brake cylinder. 

Lap Position :—AIl connections are closed, and any 
air therefore, which has previously been admitted to the 
brake cylinder, is retained. 

RELEASE POSITION:—Connection is made from the 


210 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


brake cylinder to atmosphere, exhausting the air and 
releasing the brakes. 

In order to obtain a gradual application of the brakes 
when slowing up, or for making a gradual stop, the Ap- 
plication Position is divided into two parts—Service Ap- 
plication Position, and Emergency Appliation Position. 

SERVICE APPLICATION POSITION :—A small port admits 
air from the reservoir to the brake cylinder. 





Fig. 111. Type S Form C Slide Type of Valve. 


EMERGENCY APPLICATION POSITION :—A large port is 
opened admitting air from the reservoir to the brake 
eylinder, which applies the brakes almost instantaneously. 

Two types of valves are manufactured—the rotary 
and slide valve. 

The slide valve illustrated in Fig 111, consists of a 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE ALT 


rectangular block, which is moved backwards and for- 
wards by a cross head, which in turn is operated by a 
erank arm formed on the lower end of the valve stem. 
The slide type of valve is generally preferable to the 
rotary valve as the wear on the seat is more uniform, 
and, therefore, the valve remains tight for a longer 
period. 





Fig. 112. Type S Form B Rotary Type of Valve. 


The valve proper operates on a raised seat, and is 
surrounded by a removable yoke which fits closely at 
the edges of the seat, and acts as a guide to keep the 
valve in proper alignment. Regrinding is facilitated 
by this form of construction. The valve stem is pro- 
vided with a square shouldered flange, forming a seat 
for a leather washer which makes an air tight joint 

with the valve bonnet. 


Ba ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The rotary valve illustrated by Fig. 112 is a dise 
valve rotated directly by the valve stem. The valve 
is centered by means of a guide pin in the valve body 
and is easily removed, which allows the valve to be 
readily reground when necessary. | 

Motorman’s brake valves should be thoroughly lubri- 
eated at least once every month. To lubricate the valve, 
remove the valve bonnet, clean the valve and valve seat, 
and then apply a lubricant of grease and oil. Provision 
is made in the valve bonnet for oiling the valve stem. 
If a leak should develop between the stem and the bon- 
net, the leather washer should be removed and softened 
by immersing in oil for a short period. 

VALVE INSTALLATION: Valves must be located at a 
convenient height above the car floor, so as not to inter- 
fere with the controller or brake handle. Before a car 
is placed in service, the valve should be taken apart 
and thoroughly cleaned and lubricated. This should be 
repeated after the car has been in service a week, to 
remove grit, and scale that has worked loose from the 
piping, ete., and to prevent, so far as possible, valve 
seats being cut. The valve handle should also be ex- 
amined from time to time, to see that the pawl works 
freely, and indicates the notches properly. 


BRAKE CYLINDER 


The Brake Cylinder has a tubular piston rod, which 
surrounds a push rod to which the brake levers are con- 
nected. The push rod is arranged so as to move freely 
inside the tubular piston rod, when the brakes are ap- 
plied by hand; so that hand and power application of 
the brakes are independent of one another. The pres- 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 218 


sure heads of the cylinders have a forked extension to 
which one eylinder lever is attached. 

Provision will be found in the pressure head for 
oiling, and a heavy eylinder oil or grease should be 
used. 

It is important that brake cylinders should be kept 
elean, as otherwise the brakes will not release promptly 
when the air has been discharged. The cylinders should 
be taken apart and cleaned and oiled once a year. Only 
a small amount of oil is required for this purpose. 





Fig. 113. Brake Cylinder. 


RESERVOIRS 


These are provided with connections to the follow- 
ing parts: The Compressor, the Reservoir Line leading 
to the motorman’s valves, the Governor and the Reser- 
voir Drain Cock. The connections at each end of the 
reservoir for the compressor and reservoir lines are 
tapped for a 1” pipe and must be bushed down when a 
smaller pipe is used. 

The governor connection which is located above the 
compressor connection in the end of the reservoir is 
tapped for a 2” pipe. This size of pipe should be used 
for streneth and to obtain the necessary reservoir drain- 


214 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


age. A 4” drain cock fitted with a lever handle, is 
furnished with each reservoir. This handle points down- 
wards when the cock is closed. 

Reservoirs should be drained every day to remove 
any moisture which may collect. 


SAFETY VALVES 


These should be connected to the reservoir line in 
any convenient location to prevent too high a pressure 
accumulating in the reservoir, due to the failure of the 
governor. The valve is similar to the pop safety valve 





Fig. 114. Safety Valve. Fig. 115. Pressure Gauge. 


used in steam practice. It can be readily adjusted by 
removing the cap on the upper part of the valve, and 
turning the adjusting screw. 

All standard safety valves are adjusted to open at 
100 lbs. pressure per square inch. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 215 


PRESSURE GAUGES. 


When stop cocks are used, the pressure gauges should 
be connected to the main reservoir line at a point be- 
tween the stop cock, and the motorman’s valve. This 
arrangement should be followed so that when the cock 
is closed no pressure will show on the gauge. If, there- 
fore, for any reason, air is cut off, the motorman’s at- 
tention will be called to this fact, and that the brakes 
are inoperative. 


CUT OUT, STOP, AND ANGLE COCKS 


These are supplied when trail cars are used and 
for multiple unit operation. 

The stop cocks are located near the hose couplings, 
and are for closing the train line when the trail cars 
are disconnected. Stop cocks should not be used for 
cutting out motorman’s valves, except in case of multiple 
unit operation. Serious accidents have occurred, due to 
the brake valves having been cut out without the knowl- 
edge of the operator. 

Cut out cocks are used with trail car equipments for 
disconnecting the brake cylinders in ease of accident. 
The cut out cocks are similar to the stop cocks, except 
that the handle is at right angles to the slot in the plug, 
whereas in the stop cock it is parallel. 


HOSE COUPLINGS 


Hose Couplings with check valves are provided for 
use with trail car equipments. The check valve is ar- 
ranged so as to close the train or reservoir line in case 
a train parts. 


ZAG ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The hose couplings and rubber gaskets with which 
they are provided, should be examined from time to 
time to see that they are in good condition. If defective, 
they must be renewed. 


WHISTLE 


The whistles are of the deep tone organ type, and 
possess great carrying power. 





Hig; 116.7 (WwW bistie: 


They are operated by an independent valve placed 
in the motorman’s cab or vestibule. A 14%” stop cock 
should also be connected in the pipe leading to each 
whistle, in order to disconnect the whistle in ease the 
whistle valve becomes inoperative. 


EXHAUST MUFFLERS 


These can be supplied if required. They consist 
of an iron box filled with curled hair held in place by 
metal screens so arranged as not to interfere with the 
free discharge of air when the brakes are released. 

They should be connected in the exhaust pipe from 
the motorman’s brake valve, and should preferably be 
located underneath the ear. The hair in these mufflers 
should be changed about once a year, 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE ANTS 


GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 


In calculating the brake leverage for car brakes, the 
levers should be so arranged as to give a total shoe 
pressure on the car wheels equal to 100% of the weight 
of the car empty, but fully equipped. The brake 
eylinder pressure should be taken at 50 lbs. to the square 
inch. 





Fig. 117. Exhaust Muffler. 


The brake rigging should be arranged so that the 
brake cylinder piston will not have more than 5’ stand- 
ing travel when the brakes are fully on. This allows for 
wear of the shoes and spring in the brake rigging. A 
5’’ standing travel is equivalent to a 6$’’ running travel. 
The play in the journal boxes and bolsters is increased 
when the car is running, therefore the lost motion in 
the brake rigging is also increased, and the running 
travel necessary for the piston is greater than the stand- 
ing travel. 

Brake cylinders should be attached to the ear body 
with iron plates or forgings. Lock washers should be 


218 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


used on the cylinder bolts to prevent cylinders working 
loose. When installing the piping on ears, all fins should 
be removed from the pipes. Whenever bends are neces- 
sary, they should be made long and easy, and the pipes 
should be blown out by steam or air, and rapped sharply 
during this process to loosen scale from the interior of 
the pipes. All joints should be tested with soap suds 
under pressure to insure their being tight. 

No sags, or pockets should be allowed in any of the 
piping, to prevent moisture collecting. All pipes should 
be fastened securely to the car body to prevent vibra- 
tion and loosened joints. 

The pipe from the compressor to the reservoir must 
drain towards the reservoir, and should be located so 
that the vibration of the compressor will not loosen the 
pipe connections. This connection should be made as 
long as possible to cool the air, before reaching the 
reservoir. The cooling helps the precipitation of the 
moisture which is held in suspension in the air. The 
water so deposited then drains into the reservoir, which 
acts as a water trap, and prevents it being carried fur- 
ther into the brake system. For this reason it is import- 
ant that’ the reservoirs should be thoroughly drained 
every day, as previously pointed out under heading— 
Reservoirs. 


EMERGENCY STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE EQUIPMENT 


The Emergency Straight Air Brake System has been 
specially designed for cars intended for operating a part 
of the time singly, and part of the time in short trains 
of two or more cars. The trains may consist of one or 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 219 


two motor cars and trailer, or of two or three motor cars 
equipped with multiple unit control. 

With this system the brakes will be applied auto- 
matically, if a train should part, and they can be ap- 
plied by the motorman, even if the train coupling line 
between the cars is injured, by moving the valve handle 
to the full emergency position. For service application 
the brakes are applied, and released in the same way as 
in the straight air brake system. 

The general arrangement of the equipments for both 
motor and trail cars is shown on Figs. 106 and 118 re- 
spectively. 

The Emergency Straight Air Brake Equipment com- 
prises the following parts :— 


MOTOR CAR EQUIPMENT. 


Motor Driven Air Compressor. 

Suspension Cradle. 

Governor. 

Switch and Fuse. 

Motorman’s Valves. 

Emergency Valve. 

Brake Cylinder. 

Reservoir. 

Safety Valve. 

Pressure Gauge. 

Hose Couplings with necessary Stop or Angle 
Cocks. 

Whistle. 

Exhaust Muffler. 

Conductor’s Valve, if desired. 





‘Juowdinby IVD [Ie JOJ JUOWIOSUBIIV [eIDU9y ‘STL ‘ST 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


220 





THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 2a. 


TRAIL CAR EQUIPMENT 


Emergency Valve. 

Brake Cylinder. 

Auxiliary Reservoir. 

Hose couplings with necessary Stop or Angle 
Cocks. 


The parts comprised in the motor car equipment are 
identical with those used in the Straight Air Brake 
System, with the exception of the Motorman’s Valves and 
Emergency Valves. These two parts only will therefore 
be specially dealt with here, and for instructions on the 
rest of the equipment reference should be made to the 
instructions on ‘‘Straight Air Brake Equipments.’”’ 

The parts that are common to motor ear, and trail 
car equipments are the same, with the exception that the 
auxiliary reservoir for trail car equipments is ordinarily 
made smaller than that used for motor car equipments, 
in order to permit of a quicker release of the brakes 
after an emergency application has been made, and also 
to decrease the time necessary for charging the auxiliary 
reservoirs when a trail car is coupled to a motor ear. 

By consulting the general arrangement diagrams 
(Figs. 106 and 118) it will be seen that the main pipe 
connections are as follows :— 

A pipe connection is made from the motor com- 
pressor to the reservoir, from which two other pipe eon- 
nections are taken. One is taken directly to the motor- 
man’s valves at the ends of the car, thence to the train 
and reservoir lines running the whole length of the train. 
The other pipe connection is taken from the reservoir 
through the emergency valve, which has separate con- 


pees ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


nections to the brake cylinder, reservoir, and train line. 
An auxiliary connection from the motor compressor end 
of the reservoir is provided for the whistles at each end 
of the car. 

The trail car pipe connections consist of train, and 
reservoir lines, which are coupled through the emergency 
valve to the auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder. If 
a conductor’s valve is used, a pipe is taken from the 
reservoir line for this connection. 





Fig. 119. Type S Ferm D Motorman’s Valve. 


é¢ 9? 


MOTORMAN’S VALVE, TYPE ‘‘S,’’ FoRM ‘‘D. 


This valve is of the rotary type and has four pipe 
connections. The first leads to the main reservoir, the 
second to the reservoir line, the third to the train line, 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 228 


and the fourth, which is located in the center of the 
valve, leads directly to atmosphere. Beginning with the 
handle at the extreme left, the following are the posi- 
tions and operations which occur in moving the valve 
through its successive steps. 

_ This valve is illustrated in Figure 119 and a view of 
the parts named is shown in Figure 120. 

1. EmerGENcy RELEASE Position :—The train line 
is connected to atmosphere, and the main reservoir is 
connected to the reservoir line. 

The latter connection is made through a small port 
which charges the reservoir line to reservoir pressure, 
after an emergency application of the brakes has been 
made. The pressure above, and below the piston of the 
emergency valve is thus equalized, and the piston is 
foreed back to the normal position by means of a spring 
located in the lower part of the valve. 

The port connecting the main reservoir to the reser- 
voir line is so proportioned that in case the train should 
part, and the valve handle is left in full release position, 
the air will not escape faster than it is supplied by the 
motor compressor, and the brakes will remain full on. 
Although this is the case, the valve handle should never 
be left in this position if a train parts. Under such 
conditions the handle must always be thrown to the 
emergency position. This application is more fully de- 
scribed below. 

2. SERVICE RELEASE AND RUNNING PosITION :—The 
train line is connected to atmosphere, and the port con- 
necting the main reservoir, to reservoir line is blanked. 

3. Lap Position :—AlIl ports are blanked. 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


224 


‘d WOT G OdAT, OATVA S,UBUTIOJOW JO swe ‘OSL ‘SLT 





THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 225 

THIS IS THE ONLY POSITION IN WHICH THE HANDLE 
CAN BE REMOVED. 

4. Service APPLICATION PosiTIoN:—The main 
reservoir is connected to the train line for applying the 
brakes. 

This position is sub-divided into two parts :— 

Fuirst—Service Position, in which the air is admitted 
to the train line through a small opening which permits 
a gradual application of the brakes, such as would be 
used for a slowdown or an ordinary service stop. 

Second—F ull Service Position, in which a large port 
is opened to train line, allowing the brakes to be applied 
rapidly. This position corresponds to the emergency 
position in the straight air brake motorman’s valve. 

5. EMERGENCY APPLICATION POSITION :—The reser- 
voir line is connected to atmosphere. 

In this position, the valve handle is thrown to the 
extreme right, which exhausts the air from the reservoir 
line, throwing the emergency valve to the emergency 
position, and admitting air directly from the respective 
reservoirs to the brake cylinders, thus applying the 
brakes on all cars in the train. } 

The action above described is identical to that which 
takes place in the automatic system, as the brakes are 
applied automatically if the reservoir line pressure is 
suddenly reduced. Such a reduction of pressure will 
take place when the motorman’s valve is in position 5, 
or if the train parts, or the reservoir line hose | ursts. 

In the Emergency Application Position of the motor- 
man’s valve, the connection from the main reservoir to 
the train line is cut off, which prevents air escaping from 
the main reservoir through the train line to atmosphere, 
in case the train should part or a hose bursts. 


226 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


EMERGENCY VALVE, TYPE ‘‘B,’’ FORM ‘‘F,”’ 


This valve is similar in operation to the triple valve 
used in the automatic system, except that the graduating 
valve is omitted. A sectional view of this valve is shown 
in Fig. 121. <A view of the parts named is given in Fig. 
122. 


Yj, [SSE : \ 






VELMA) 
ens en 


RW 0 Drake Cyliaer 


Wve F277 LI VC 


san 


' 
v 
RRR MWG HAW 


REISS 


———S 


= 4 


Fig. 121. Emergency Valve Type E Form F, Sectional View. 


The pipes leading from the brake cylinder, reservoir, 
reservoir line and train line, are connected to this valve 
which is attached to a bracket located underneath the 
ear. The valve is bolted to the bracket, and the parts 


227 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 





Gl ORNS Ey 

















228 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


are so arranged that no pipe connections are made to the 
valve proper. It can, therefore, be removed for inspec- 
tion or cleaning without disturbing any of the pipe con- 
nections. 

The port marked ‘‘reservoir line’’ connects to the 
chamber in the lower part of the valve, and is connected 
to the reservoir line running throughout the train. The 
port marked ‘‘reservoir’’ is connected directly to the 





Fig. 123. Emergency Valve Type E Form F. 


main reservoir of the motor cars, or to the auxiliary 
reservoir of the trail cars. The pipe marked ‘‘brake 
eylinder,’’ connects directly to the brake cylinder. The 
pipe marked ‘‘train line’’ connects to the train line 
running throughout the train. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 229 


OPERATION OF EMERGENCY VALVE. 


SERVICE APPLICATION: When the valve is in the 
normal position as shown in the sectional view, com- 
munication is established between the train line and the 
brake cylinder, and the brakes are applied, or released by 
an increase or decrease of pressure in the train line. 

During this operation, there is no movement of the 
slide valve, and the application and release of the brakes 
is made on all cars in the same manner as in the straight 
air brake system. 

EMERGENCY APPLICATION: If the pressure of the 
air is suddenly reduced in the reservoir line, which 
eonnects with the chamber underneath the piston, the 
reservoir pressure in the valve chamber above forces the 
piston, and slide valve downwards. This movement 
closes the charging grooves around the piston, and the 
slide valve connects the reservoir directly to the brake 
eylinder when the piston has reached its lowest position, 
and at the same time closes the port to the train line. 
No air can then flow from the reservoir, to the reservoir 
line, nor from, or to the train line, but the full reservoir 
pressure is admitted into the brake cylinder. 

If the motorman’s valve is moved to the emergency 
position, which connects the reservoir line to atmosphere, 
or a reservoir line breaks, the brakes will be at once 
applied on all cars. ; 

RELEASE: In order to release brakes after an emer- 
gency application has been made, the reservoir line 
must be re-charged to reservoir pressure. To do this, 
the handle of the motorman’s valve is moved to the 
emergency release position. This allows air to flow from 
the main reservoir of the first car, through a small. port 


230 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


in the motorman’s valve to the reservoir line, and also 
opens the train line to atmosphere. The pressures above 
and below the piston in the emergency valve are then 
equalized, and the spring moves the piston and slide 
valve to the normal position, connecting the train line 
and brake cylinder together. The air can then flow 
from the brake cylinder to the train line, thence through 
the motorman’s valve to atmosphere. 


PIPE CONNECTIONS. 


Referring to Fig. 106, showing the piping arrange- 
ment adopted for emergency straight air brake motor 
car equipments, it will be seen that the whistles are 
connected between the compressor and reservoir. The 
position of this connection is important, and this location 
of the whistle is chosen to prevent violent fluctuations 
of the air pressure in the pipes near the emergency valve 
when the whistles are blown, which might throw this 
valve into the emergency position with a consequent ap- 
plication of the brakes. 

A 34” pipe should be used for the train line, reser- 
voir line, and for the connection from the reservoir to 
the emergency valve, and to the motorman’s valves, in 
order to minimize the time required for applying the 
brakes. If an 8” or 6” brake cylinder is used, a 14” 
pipe is sufficient for the train line, or for the pipes lead- 
ing directly from the reservoir to the emergency valve, 
and to the motorman’s valves. This size of pipe should 
never be used for the reservoir line, as quicker action of 
the emergency valve can be obtained by using the larger 


pipe. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 231 


If duplex gauges are used, the brake cylinder con- 
nection of the gauge should be piped to the train line 
side of the motorman’s valve, and the reservoir connec- 
tion connected to the pipe from the reservoir direct to 
the motorman’s valve. The brake cylinder pressure 
would not be indicated by this arrangement if an emer- 
gency application of the brakes were made, and the train 
line therefore opened to atmosphere. This, however, is 
not very important, and the connections given above are 
recommended. 


GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 


Before putting the motorman’s valve into service, it 
should be taken apart and all dirt removed. After the 
valve has been in service for about a week, it should be 
again taken apart and cleaned, in order to remove any 
collection of scale which may have been detached from 
the pipes. 

This valve should be oiled with a lubricant composed 
of grease and oil once a month through the two ports 
provided for this purpose. 

The Emergency Valve should be removed from its 
bracket, and cleaned after being a week in service. The 
valve should be drained, and the strainer cleaned at the 
same time, which can be readily done by unscrewing the 
nut at the bottom of the valve. 

This valve should be thoroughly overhauled every six 
months to keep it in good condition, and should be oiled 
with a high grade engine oil. 

The instructions given for ‘‘Straight Air Brake 
Equipments’’ should be followed in connection with brake 
leverage, piston travel, installation of pipes and ap- 
paratus under the car, location of the same, and joint 
testing. 


232 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The instructions already given should also be fol- 
lowed with reference to the air compressor, governor, 
eombined switch and fuse, the installation of motor- 
man’s valve, brake cylinder, reservoirs, safety valve, 
pressure gauges, hose couplings, whistles’ and exhaust 
mufflers. | 

EFFICIENCY. 


The Maintenance of Schedule Time, being one of great 
importance as a prominent factor in the expense of op- 
eration, the efficiency of the braking system is a subject 
ealling for serious consideration. The best results are 
obtained from equipment only, when provided with a 
braking system of the highest efficiency, as the measure 
of value of a car brake is its ability to stop a ear with- 
in the shortest possible distance when necessary, and 
any accessory means by which the braking system may 
be enabled to better perform its functions is an advan- 
tage of no little moment, and can be secured by the 
transfer of weight, during a brake application, in a 
one-way car, and this advantage may be obtained 
equally well on a hand brake car or one with power 
brakes, the latter, however, showing the best results 
from test made with both. The figures of one notable 
test recently made give the following results: 

Total weight of car, empty, 26,000 lbs. 

Level grade, dry rail. 

Speed, 14 m.p.h. 

Average distance to stop, hand brake, 79 feet. 

Average distance to stop, air brake, 61 feet. 

According to the strength and skill of the operator, 
it requires three to four seconds to secure the maxi- 
mum pressure on the wheels with a hand brake car of 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 233 


moderate weight; it takes longer to reach that maxi- 
mum with a high leverage brake. All things equal, it 
would require the following distances to stop two cars 
running at a speed of 20 m.p.h.: 

Hand brake car, 161 feet. 

Air brake car, 124 feet. 

As between stopping and starting, the former is the 
more important, as the safety of the service is more in- 
volved, and loss of brake efficiency is a factor of formida- 
ble degree in damage to person and property. 





‘ff “a ae 
Friction betwe 
i 





il 





Fig, 124. The Westinghouse-Galton Friction Curves. 


The possibility of skidding wheels depends solely on 
the speed, with high pressure brakes. The importance of 
automatic means for reducing the tension on the braking 
apparatus in proportion to the reduction of speed should 
not be lost sight of in the considerations of high braking 
efficiency, but as much improvement has not yet been 
successfully applhed, the judgment of the operator of 
higher braking power must be relied upon, for the pres- 
ent at least. An important fact to be borne in mind by 


234 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


the motorman is that with the same pressure, the retard- 
ing effect is less at high than at low speeds, as the fric- 
tion of the brake shoes upon the wheels varies inversely 
with the speed, and calls for greater brake-shoe pressure 
upon the wheels at high speed. Time, distance, efficiency 
and the comfort of the passengers are the primary con- 
siderations, and which potentially may be claimed for a 
straight line stop. 

The making of stops with the highest attainable degree 
of economy and efficiency will become a habit with the 
operator if, in the beginning, he will adopt as axiomatic 
the well demonstrated truth that the highest braking ef- 
feet must be secured at the highest speed, and the pres- 
sure decreased in the ratio of speed reduction. The 
Westinghouse-Galton friction curves, Fig. 124, show the 
importance of this scientific application of brake pres- 
sure. 

The amount of power required to skid the wheels limits 
the stopping power of a.car, therefore the brake-shoe fric- 
tion against the wheel should fall just short *of a suffi- 
ciency to overcome the constant static rail friction. When 
the brakes are powerfully applied a sudden retardation is 
experienced and if the wheels then begin to skid, thereby 
losing the gradual decrease in their revolution, the mo- 
mentum of the ear will accelerate the speed again, as the 
friction on the rail will offer less resistance to the sliding 
wheels, than if the brake friction had gradually reduced 
the revolutions without locking the wheels entirely. If 
the car continues to slide along the rails, it will proceed a 
greater distance before stopping, than if the stop had 
been effected by the gradual decrease in revolution of 
wheels obtained by less than the full power suddenly ap- 
pled to the brakes. By increasing the initial application 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 935 


of less than full power and maintaining it at all times, 
a little less than sufficient to lock the wheels, the stop 
will be made in the shortest possible distance. The pro- 


8055 Lbs. 


1334" 
10309 \ba. 


0x12 Cyl: 
ver. 70 lbs. 
'' 5500 Lbs, | 


Wel,lit op each Axle 10850 tbs, Type 43 ft.4 Motor Car 
Light Weight 43400 lbs. Total Average B. P, 128% 
Braking Power 
No.l Azle 22553 lbs. 207 % 
No. 2 and 3 Axle 11364 « 105 % 
No, 4Axrle 10309 « 96 % 





Hie, 25. Braking Data for 43-ft, Kour-motor Car, 





Note— 6 x 8 Cylinder for 
? Emergency only, Controlled 
-/ from Motorman’s Brake Valve 





1885 Lbs. 













17908 Tbs. 414° 10839 1» 19} 
Front End > [10839 Ibs._8954 the, 
‘of Car, Oss Aveerr. TU IJ} Foes 


Weignt op each Axle6250 lbs, 
Type 41 ft. 4 Motor Car 
Light Weight 37000 lbs. Total Average B, P. Service 131% 

Total Average B. P. in Ex ergency 190% 


Braking Power in Service Braking Power in Emergency 
No] Azle 17903 Iba, 398 ¥ 26001 Ibs, 280 
No. 2and3 Axle 10839 + 117% : 157 
No. 4Axle 8954 <« 95% 15 





6 Cylinder Adds 45% Braking Power 
Fig. 126. Braking Data for 41-ft. Four-motor Car. 


1661 lbs. 
O 
849 Ibe 9550 lbe.\ ° 


7 
——— 7889 Ibs. 4 8 x 12 Cyl. 
of Car i Aver. 70 lbs 


2 3500 Ibs. 


Type 40 ft. 2 Motor Car 
Motors ov No. 2 and 8 Axel 
Light Weight 29500 lbs. Total Average B.P.107% 
F wt, Braking Power. 
No.1 Axle 5999 lbs. 7889 lbs, 181-% 
No. 2 and3 Azle be “ 





99 «6 


No.4 Axle 


Fig. 127. Braking Data for 40-ft. Two-motor Car. 


portions given in Figs. 125, 126 and 127 show that the 
increase of pressure is on the forward part of the car and 
is accompanied by a proportionate increase of transferred 


236 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


weight due to the high center of gravity, although at first 
glance the total braking power may appear too high. 

From the greater rail pressure of the front pair of 
wheels of the truck may be inferred a transfer of a part 
of the normal pressure from one pair of wheels to the 
other. As the transfer in weight from the rear to the 
front wheels of the truck will call for greater brake-shoe 
pressure on the front pair, the pressure on the rear pair 
must be reduced when applying the brake power in pro- 
portion to the difference in pressure caused by the shift- 
ing of the weight, otherwise the rear wheels are liable to 
become locked and skid. 

Figs. 125, 126 and 127 show the leverage and braking 
power of three different types of cars, which was deter- 
mined after a number of tests. One of these cars was 
a two-motor, and the other two were four-motor equip- 
ments of different weights, and the tests have reduced to 
a scientific truth the theory that the transfer of weight 
of a one-way car will increase the braking power, without 
additional operation expense. This increase in power 
varies with the height of center of gravity, truck centers 
and truck-wheel base. 

The two-motor equipment with one motor on each 
truck (Fig. 127) shows that the total average braking 
power is 107 per cent, and the brake efficiency on the 
drivers is not reduced by reason of the idlers. The 41- 
foot four-motor car, Fig. 126, shows that in every maxi- 
mum service application of the brake, a total average of 
131 per cent is obtained, and a pressure of 193 per cent 
on No. 1 axle. When the 6-inch cylinder acts, a total of 
190 per cent average is obtained, and the No. 1 axle rises 
to 280 per cent. Fig. 125 shows the 43-foot four-motor 
ear to have a total average braking power of 128 per 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 237 


cent and has the highest proportion on the No. 1 axle, 
which is 207 per cent in maximum service application, as 
it does not possess the 6-inch emergency cylinder feature. 
The truck wheel bases are: 

Fig. 127, 4 feet 10 inches. 

Fig. 126, 4 feet. 

Fig. 125, 4 feet 9 inches. 

The highest permissible operating proportion on the 
No. 1 axle has not been reached in any of these eases, 
but the streneth of the truck frame permits carrying the 
pressure no higher at the top of dead lever. 

This high braking power cannot be on a two-way or 
double-end ear, as the limit of maximum power obtained 
up to the skidding point on the rear pair of wheels is 
about 95 per cent, which is the general practice for pas- 
senger cars for a 20 m.p.h. speed. 


DEAD LEVER. 


Many professionals otherwise well qualified in the 
maintenance and adjustment of existing brakes fail to 
grasp the function of the dead lever. As a rule shopmen 
think no more of lengthening or shortening this lever 
than they would of changing a brake rod. Nevertheless 
changing a dead lever changes the shoe pressure. Fig. 
128 shows one-half of an inside hung brake rigging, the 
arrowheads show the directions in which a pull on rod 
AP will move the other lettered parts of rigging. As- 
suming a pull of 1,250 pounds on AP, shoe No. 1 will 
apply a force of (1,250 24/6), or 5,000 pounds. The 
bottom rod C D will be subjected to a thrust of (18x 
1,250/6), or 3,750 pounds, which is the force applied to 
the lower end of the dead lever D X. Neglecting friction, 


238 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


the foree with which shoe No. 2 will be applied is then 
(3,750 24/18), or 5,000 pounds. Here the levers are 
proportioned alike, and the shoes subjected to equal pres- 
sure. Now suppose 6 inches to be cut from the top of 
the dead lever, all other dimensions remaining the same; 
the 3,750-pound force applied to its lower end will pro- 
duce for No. 2 shoe a pressure of (3,750X18/12), or 
5,625 pounds, which is 12.5 per cent more than on No. 
1 shoe. This is an excessive allowance for even an ex- 
cessive friction. Were the dead lever lengthened instead 
of shortened, a difference in the opposite direction would 
be secured. Tampering with the length of the dead 
lever is generally done either for convenience in anchor- 
ing its upper end, or because the upper end interferes 
with something else on the equipment. 





uo BR C 


Hise. 3D said Sram. 


ELECTRIC BRAKES. 


The basie principle of the electric brake lies in its em- 
ployment of the stored energy in a moving car to gen- 
erate the current by means of which the car is stopped, 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 239 


thus performing this function irrespective of the power 
station. The motors are connected to act as dynamos by 
the use of the B type controllers, which are used for 
electric brakes. When a ear is to be brought to a stand- 
still with an electric brake, the current passing through 
a resistance actuates a magnetic friction disc mounted 
on each axle, and also retards the action of the motors. 
To stop the car the controller is moved to the ‘‘off’’ posi- 
tion, which disconnects the car from the cireuit. The 
handle is then moved to the special brake notches, which 
reverses the armature connections and connects the mo- 
tors so as to effect a closed circuit through a resistance 
and the brake disc magnets. 

The motors now generate the current, as the circuit 
being closed in this manner, they act as dynamos. This 
current causes the magnetic clutch on the axle to act and 
also retards the action of the motors, both of which oe- 
currences combined brings the car to a standstill. 


The Westinghouse Electric Brake is in the form of a 
track shoe which exerts both a downward pull—being 
held to the rail by its magnetism—and a horizontal drag. 
The shoe is magnetized by a winding energized by a cur- - 
rent which the car motors produce. The vertical pull 
downward, acting through rods and levers designed for 
the purpose, sets the ordinary brake shoes against the 
wheels. This style of brake requires special braking 
notches in order to connect the motors so that they will 
generate the current, and conduct it to the track-shoe 
magnets and also a resistance to take up the excess of 
energy required to operate the brake. 

Fig. 129 shows the construction of this brake. 

The electro-magnet which divides the brake shoe into 
two parts is made fast to the two push rods by pins and 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


240 


OW 


‘oyRIg o1jouseyT jo uortONaAYsuOD 





a 
526) 
rm Fi 
nT Hee i Ly 

Ory 
Tes 


Mid —e | AN 
ie 


\\_@ I] 





ae a til © 





‘6ST “SI 





THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 241 


is suspended by adjustable springs. The push rods are 
made fast to the lower ends of the brake levers by pins, 
and the brake levers are connected at their upper ex- 
tremities by an adjustable rod, and are secured by a 
pivot to the brake-shoe holders and hanger links at an 
intermediate point. The hanger links are suspended 
from the truck frame. When the track shoe moves to- 
wards the right, the lower end of the brake lever on that 
side is also pushed in that direction, which causes the 
brake shoe to press against the wheel. The same motion 
causes the upper end of the same brake lever to move to 
the left, pushing the adjustable rod and the upper end 
of the brake lever at the left, in the same direction, which 
forces the brake shoe against the wheel. To facilitate 
this movement the push rods are made to work telescop- 
ically, as there are stops provided on either side which 
prevent the lower ends of the brake levers from follow- 
ing the direction in which the brake shoe moves on the 
track. The principle applied in the construction of the 
mechanism is very simple—just the evolution or develop- 
ment of the motion described by a needle pivoted verti- 
eally to a plane. When the lower end moves in one di- 
rection, the upper end moves in the opposite. 

In this brake the motorman controls the attractive force 
of the rails upon the magnets up to a limit of 150 lbs. per 
square inch of brake shoe surface against rail surface. As 
the rail becomes the armature of the magnet, the strength 
of the latter is determined by the sectional area of the 
former. For very heavy cars a magnet of greater and 
sufficient strength is obtained by dividing the track shoe’ 
into three, instead of two parts, and winding it to form 
two electro magnets with a common pole, or a three pole 
magnet. This type of brake has two sets of resistances, 


249 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


one on the exterior, and one on the interior of the car; 
the interior ones being employed to heat the car, which is 
effected by means of the braking, and starting currents 
and the amount of heat used in the ear is regulated by 
combining the two sets of diverters in such manner as to 
supply the car with the heat it requires and permitting 
the surplus to escape. 

The construction of this brake may provide for a varia- 
tion in adjustment to increase the friction of the brake- 
shoe on the track rail. By changing the angular inelina- 
tion of the push rods, and adjusting the levers to corre- 
spond, a portion of the weight of the car can be thrown 
upon the track shoes, and inversely the pressure of the 
brake shoes upon the wheels reduced. This adjustment, 
by which the adhesion of the track shoe to the rail is in- 
ereased by weight of the car, is advantageous in wet 
weather, when the wheels have a tendency to slide, thus, 
to a certain extent, defeating the purpose of the brake 
shoe, as the force operating the wheel brake is reduced 
with the reduction of track magnet current, which de- 
elines with the speed when the car is being stopped. 
When the track magnet current is cut off, caused by the 
sliding, or cessation of wheel rotation, the pressure of the 
brake shoe upon the wheel relaxes, and the wheels resume 
their rotary motion. 

The Price-Darling electric brake (Figs. 180 and 131) is 
operated by the trolley current which is cut off from the 
ear motors by mechanism in the brake controller, de- 
signed for that purpose, and applied to the brake cyl- 
inders, the motors being converted into generators. The 
equipment for this brake consists principally of two 
brake controllers located on the platforms, an electro- 
magnetic brake cylinder, and an automatic controller and 
transfer switch under the car. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 243 


we 
> To truck 
/ 


|| 2 
at So 


Release Cylinder 


Automatic Controller 









tenner eer ete eee eee a we i See 


re 2 








244 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The brake cylinder is a solenoid with a movable core, 
which when energized in turn by the trolley current and 
the current generated by the motors actuates the system 
of brake levers causing the appleation of the brake shoes 
to wheels. In the operation of this brake the sliding of 
the wheels is provided against by the gradual application 
of the brakes as the speed of car is reduced, effected by 
the automatic controller which regulates the supply of 
current to the brake cylinder from the car motors. When 
sufficient current is generated by the motors, the trolley 
current is automatically cut off from the brake cylinder 
by the transfer switch. 

The use of this brake enables the motorman to hold 
the car on a grade without the aid of the hand brake, 
as the system is provided with a locking device on the 
brake cylinder which holds the brakes in position without 
any power after they have been applied, and they are 
so held until released by the motorman. 


EVOLUTION OF THE BRAKE SHOE. 


A. significant feature in the problem of successful 
train operation is the evolution of the brake shoe as a 
factor in deceleration, and one which has received 
a large share of the attention of experts in heavy elec- 
trie railway service in recent years. The result of ex- 
tensive study of. brake shoes, to determine the cost, life, 
reliability, retarding effect and influence on the wear of 
the wheel tread, which has been given to the subject 
by some of the most prominent heavy electric railway 
systems, is considered of such educational value that it 
is briefly treated in this work, with a passing suggestion 
to those engaged in the operation of electric railways 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 245 


that the subject is one calling for constant attention, and 
observation with a view to bring this important factor 
of car operation to its highest development of mechani- 
eal utility. 

Previous to 1902 the shoes on some elevated systems 
were of the Corning type with square ends, as shown 
in Fig. 182. Subsequently the shoes were made with 
east lugs, and of softer metal to provide against the ten- 





Fig. 132. Square End Corning Shoe, Before 1902. 


deney to chip and erack, which is common occurrence 
with the use of hard metal. Later the cast lugs on the 
shoe were replaced by a stub of wrought steel, as shown 
in Figs. 133 and 134, to provide against brake failure 
through breakage of lugs. 

By the addition of extended ends heavily chilled, and 
changing the shoe to the U type, it has increased the 
durability as well as frictional qualities, the chill re- 
maining as in Figs. 133 and 134. Same change was also 
_made in trailer shoes (Fig. 135) as regards the extended 


246 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 





Fig. 1338: 





Fig. 135. Trailer, 1903 Type. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 247 





Fig. 136. Section of 1903 Shoe Showing Amount of Chill in 
the Ends. 





Fig. 137. Worn Motor Shoe Shown New in Fig. 133. 





Fig. 138. Trailer Shoe, Scrap Weight 10% Ibs., 60 Per Cent Wear. 





Fig. 139. Trailer Shoe, Weight 27 lbs. Net, 60 Per Cent Wear. 


248 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


5 =3 ——il 








ALLL 7A i 
Fig. 140. Steel Back Brake Shoe for Motor Trucks. 


ends, but the lugs of the trailer shoe, although very 
heavy, were not reinforced. Fig. 136 shows a section of 
the motor shoe, and indicates the amount of chill in 
the end of the shoe. Fig. 137 indicates, and gives a 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 249 


good view of a scrap shoe of the standard type. The 
original weight of Fig. 133 is 35 Ibs., and showed a 
weight when serapped to average 17.9 lbs. (Fig. 137.) 
and leaves about 49 per cent for wear. Fig. 138 illus- 
trates a trailer shoe when worn out. A new shoe of this 
type, Fig. 139, weighs 27 Ibs., and the scrap is about 10 
Ibs., which allows about 60 per cent for wear. There are 





Fig, 141. Steel Back Brake Shoe for Trailer. 


practically no failures with the above shoes, due either 
on account of the breakage of the shoes, or bad effects 
on the wheel tread. Many of these shoes are worn down 
to about 4” in thickness, and sometimes clear to the 
steel back. As the motor and trailer shoes are a close 
fit to the wheels at the start, the. scrap weight is very 
low, and much less than could be accomplished with an 
unreinforeed shoe, while the advantage of being rein- 
foreed against failure makes this shoe a satisfactory one 


250 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 





Fig. 142. Steel Back “U”’ Type Motor and Trailer Shoe in Use 
Previous to March, 1908. 


for elevated equipment, as pieces of the shoe will not 
fall to the street. 

Designs of some brake shoes in present use on heavy 
service roads will serve to show the advance in the type 


DO ss 





Fig. 148. Steel Back Type of Motor and Trailer Shoe with Cen- 
ter Chill and Toes Cut Off and in Present Use. 


cf brake shoes used in heavy traffic on some roads from 
the old Diamond ‘‘S’’ type used in early days to the 
present type of shoe introduced in 1908. 


OPERATION OF BRAKES. 


Whilst it is highly important that all motormen should 
possess an intelligent understanding of the machinery 
which they operate, it is not advisable that they should 
attempt such repairs as come strictly within the province 
of trained and experienced mechanics who are beyond 
the experimental stage; nor is it the policy of any well 
managed railroad corporation to permit unskilled em- 
ployes to attempt the repairs of valuable machinery ; 
still, there are emergencies continually confronting the 
motorman in which a knowledge of the construction, and 
working principles of the machinery in his charge will 
enable him to temporarily meet the difficulties which 
confront him at remote points when more skilful services 
are not attainable, and place him in position to run his 
car in for necessary repairs. 

Whatever may be the brake system operated by the 
motorman, there are certain prominent features of op- 
eration which he should always keep prominently in 
view: The brakes should invariably be tested before 
leaving the car barn, and the motorman should be cer- 
tain that the brakes are fully released before touching 
the controller. On a grade, to prevent receding of the 
ear, the controller should be moved to start the car the 
moment the brakes are released. By the exercise of care 
in the handling of his brakes, the motorman can save 
much expense to the company, and relieve the public of 
unnecessary annoyance. Experience has demonstrated 
that the sliding of the wheels on the rails not only re- 

202 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 253 


duces the braking resistance and retarding force, but 
wears away the wheels, causing flat surfaces or ‘‘flat 
wheels,’’ which entail the expense of removing, and turn- 
ing down the wheels in the shops. Not to mention the 
intolerable noise, and consequent nuisance to the public 
which proceeds from a flat wheel before it can be taken 
into the shops for repairs, the incessant pounding must 
necessarily cause a certain amount of damage to track, 
especially at joints which are exposed most to lamination. 

There has recently been developed a formula, express- 
ing the kinetic energy of the blow delivered on the rail 
by a wheel with a flat spot. According to this formula 
the energy of the impact varies directly as follows: The 
weight of the wheel and its load; the square of velocity ; 
the square length of the flat spot, and inversely the 
square of the diameter of the wheel. This formula dis- 
regards some minor considerations in the mechanics of 
the problems which probably do not affect materially the 
values obtained, but assumes a perfectly flat spot with 
sharp corners. With a 33 in. wheel, where the flat spot 
is 21% in. long and carrying a load of 6,000 lbs. the 
kinetic energy of the blow delivered to the rail at a speed 
of 30 m. p h. is more than 1,000 ft. lbs. The assump- 
tion of speed and weight corresponds roughly to the ex- 
tremes of heavy city service. The effect on both the 
rolling stock and track of the blows repeated many times 
per minute is very severe. While the damage to the rail 
is not likely to extend much below the surface, experience 
has shown that even surface indentations may cause rail 
breakings if the mills have not properly finished out the 
rails. To the crystallization of the metal produced by 
the constant hammering of flat wheels, the breakage of 
axle bearing lugs on motor castings are no doubt due, 


254 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Much of the impact is absorbed by the elasticity of the 
rails and ties in open-ballasted tracks, where the structure 
is yielding to some extent, but the full force of the blow 
is absorbed locally by the metal in the railhead in rigid 
tracks of paved streets. 

The stopping of a car with the minimum of jar, jolt, 
wear and strain on machinery is, after all, a matter of 
gsood judgment in when, and where to apply, release, and 
again apply the brakes. A moderate application of the 
brakes at an estimated reasonable distance, when ap- 
proaching the stopping point, which will tend gradually 
to slacken the speed, and a gradual increase of the brake 
shoe pressure when the stopping point has almost been 
reached, will effect an easy stop without undue strain or 
shock. On the other hand, it is not advisable to apply 
the brakes too far away when approaching the stopping, 
and make first, a reduction and then an increase in the 
speed, or sudden slacking and spurting forward. This is 
not only unscientific, and objectionable to the passengers, 
but it causes loss of time and unnecessary strain. An 
intelligent manipulation of the brake is the prime factor 
in the duration of the life of the brakeshoes and ear 
wheels, and also insures an economical expenditure of 
stored energy. 


THE FAILURE OF THE HAND BRAKE. 


When the hand brake fails to work by reason of the 
parting of the brake chain or rod, or a breaking of the 
bolt by which the brake rod is secured to the brake lever, 
the situation may be considered a serious one whilst 
running on the line with a ear load of passengers. This 
character of emergency calls for prompt action, and it 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 259 


is well to proceed in such manner as not to cause alarm 
to the passengers. On a city run where traffic is heavy 
and the street crowded, the motorman should, immedi- 
ately upon discovering the trouble, reverse the car and 
make a light application of the power, and signal the 
conductor to apply the rear brake. When the car has 
stopped it should remain at a standstill until the fol- 
lowing car arrives on the ground, when arrangements 
should be made with the crew of that car to push the 
disabled car to the barns. It is possible, however, to 
run the car to the barns when disabled in the manner 
cited; but it is not advisable to do so when practicable 
to avoid it. With the conductor operating the rear 
brake, and the motorman in position to promptly use 
the reverser the car may be operated by a mutual under- 
standing of signals arranged between the motorman 
-and conductor; but the distance in which stops are to 
be made should be materially lengthened, and the power 
should be applied slowly when necessary to use the 
reverser. 

The motorman should not in a ease of this kind go 
beyond the third position on a controller car, and the 
first quarter would be the limit on a car equipped with 
the T. H. rheostat, as it is not necessary to apply more 
than just enough power to reverse the wheels in the 
opposite direction; any more than just sufficient power 
would in all probability blow the fuse, and in that case 
the only resource left would be to throw the controller 
handle clear around to the last parallel position. 

When brake chains seem to have lengthened, so as to 
wind around the brake spindle abnormally, thereby pre- 
venting the car from being stopped within the required 
distance, or failing altogether to stop it, the trouble will 


256 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


be found in all probability with the turn buckles, which 
may have been slacked off on the connecting rod of the 
brake. If the turn buckle has turned away from the 
check nuts, they should be turned back, and the car can 
then proceed on its run. <A broken brake chain may 
also be readily remedied by blocking the car so that it 
will remain at rest, and then replacing the broken chain 
with the good one from the other end of the car. As 
every well equipped car should be provided with the 
necessary tools for such slight repairs as a motorman is 
permitted to make in an emergency, a monkey wrench 
will be found sufficient to make the change of brake 
chains and also to remedy any trouble arising from the 
breaking, or dropping out of brake rod bolts. 

Recent tests on braking may have, with future addi- 
tional data, a very significant bearing upon the final 
adoption of a standard and universal system, modified . 
to meet the different conditions under which the many 
roads are operated. 

Most companies at the present time have an electric 
brake for emergencies; but the exclusive use of this 
brake is rare. If the tests of electric, and air brakes 
which have recently been conducted upon a large scale, 
were compared, and the results obtained were platted, 
a curve would be obtained showing an advantage in 
favor of the electric brake over the air brake at high 
speed; but the reverse at low speed. 

The consensus of expert opinion is, that in relation to 
wear of equipment, and maintenance of the various parts 
of the cars, the hand brake is the most expensive; the 
air brake coming next, and the least expensive is the 
electric brake. It has also been definitely determined 
that the use of the electric brake calls for an increase 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 257 


in the capacity of the motors. In the adoption of a 
braking system, however, by any railway company, all 
of the conditions of operation should be ‘taken into 
consideration, as the controlling conditions will neces- 
sarily justify the application of any one of the three 
systems best suited to such conditions, whether the 
system required be hand, electric or air. 

It is advisable that the equipment of a car should 
include two complete systems, independent of each other, 
and the service brake should not require excessive mus- 
cular energy from the motorman. 

An electric brake, or some mechanical brake, should 
be used when, on account of the weight of the ears, or 
the number of cars used, the hand brake is not adequate 
as a service brake. Where the capacity of motors for 
an electric brake cannot be employed, it is admissible 
to have some kind of air brake. 

When trains or cars are run ata high speed, or when 
trains consist of more than two trail cars, the air brake 
is indispensable. It is claimed, however, in favor of 
the air brakes that they are ready at any moment, can 
be gradually applied, do not tire the motorman, permit 
the addition of any number of trail cars, and on the 
whole are more reliable. 


MAINTENANCE OF HAND BRAKES, 


The basis of almost all modern brake devices has been 
furnished by the first type of brake device used on ordi- 
nary road vehicles. They all proceed by a process of 
mechanical evolution from the primitive arrangement 
of two brake blocks and a beam operated by levers. 


258 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The most effective brake is that which applies the 
most friction to the wheel in the least space of time, up 
to a given percentage of the weight on the wheels. The 
ideal brake which is possible with power brakes, but 
beyond the potential performance of the hand brake, is 
_ that which would apply the maximum pressure on the 
initial application, gradually reducing the pressure in 
proportion to the decrease of speed, and consequent 
increase of the co-efficient of friction between the brake 
shoe and the wheel. 

Winding of the brake chain on the staff is one of the 
most important of points in the transmission of braking 
power from the brake handle to the wheels. By using 
dynamometers in the truck pull rods, tests have shown 
that the breaking pressure at the wheels varies as much 
as 40 per cent with a given pressure applied to the 
brake handle on different applications on the same ear. 
The manner in which the chain rolls on the brake staff 
indicated where the fault rested, and therefore care 
should be exercised to have a sufficient lead to the chain 
to permit it to roll on the staff without one turn running 
or binding upon the other, and for this reason a very 
close link chain should be made use of. A chain at the 
rear end of the car, catching on the snow scrapers, thus 
not permitting the application of brakes, is another 
matter which should be guarded against. For the 
protection of nuts working loose, or off from the eye 
bolts, or badly worn lnks, a frequent inspection is 
necessary. In order to prevent the chain from running 
against the platform, thus preventing the operation of 
brakes, great care should be exercised to see that the 
lead of the chain is prevented from winding above the 
eye bolt. 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 959 


To prevent excessive fiber stress at all points due to 
vibration, suitable brake rods should be designed. Brake 
rods should also be designed for the greatest pull with 
ample provision for safety. Where the cross section is 
changed to any degree, rods should not be welded to the 
brake jaws at that point. The rod therefore should be 
upset enough to bring the weld from the point where 
the metal is reduced to the size of the rod. When offsets 
eannot be avoided they should be made as long as 
possible. Care should be exercised to see that the release 
springs have only sufficient tension to release shoes, and 
it should be remembered that every pound of tension 
on brake release springs means a pound of brake-shoe 
pressure lost. To get the best braking results, soft cast 
iron brake shoes should be used, although expensive on 
account of their short life, costly material and labor. 
Moreover they necessitate the adjustment of brakes more 
frequently than is convenient, as cars are not always 
available of such adjustment. It is therefore necessary 
to use medium hard shoes, or a combination of hard 
and soft metals, one having a soft cast iron body with 
chilled sections, or one with a soft cast iron body, and 
hard iron insert. 

Case shoes with a different coefficient of friction can 
be used to advantage when it is not convenient to 
arrange brake leverage to give brake shoe pressure in 
proportion to the weight on the wheels. There is 25 
per cent more brake pressure on the wheels of the brake 
lever end of the truck than there is on the wheels on the 
opposite end when equipped with a single motor on the 
brake lever end. This is of course only on certain short 
truck cars with 150 lbs. applied to the brake handle. 
It is necessary to have reinforced brake shoes, with 


260 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


severe braking service; this reinforced brake permits 
the shoe to be worn thinner, and therefore means a less 
quantity of scrap. 

By putting in link rubbers the cost of brake hose may 
be greatly reduced; but this must be done with care, 
for if the link rubbers are not snugly and properly 
fitted, the life of the rubber is very short, and therefore 
should receive careful consideration. 

On some cars to prevent the links from breaking, a 
considerable amount of play is necessary, and an ar- 
rangement of two links, with a bolt in top and bottom, 
making a rectangular link with a joint in each corner, 
is very satisfactory. 

In order to prevent flat wheels, and that the break 
pressure may be maintained on all the wheels just below 
the skidding point, a brake leverage should be arranged 
to distribute the pressure on all wheels in proportion 
to the weight thereon. In order to prevent serious bind- 
ing on the sides of the fulerum casting or guides at all 
points in the way of travel of the lever, care should be 
exercised to see that the movement of the lever is in 
the proper direction. This applies to single truck cars 
in particular. When both levers are ‘brought in line, 
by shortening the vertical lever, and again locating the 
hole in the horizontal lever, a large difference is found 
in the braking power, and with little change of lever- 
age ratio. 


STORAGE AIR BRAKES. 


This system is operated practically in the same way 
as other straight air brakes; but by compressed air which 
is delivered to storage tanks carried on the ear from 
a large storage tank at central points, where the air is 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 261 


compressed. The air capacity of the tanks on the cars 
is sufficient to last a car several trips over an ordinary 
city route, allowing between 250 to 500 stops. <A reduc- 
ing valve serves to lower the pressure in the main reser- 
voir on the car to 50 pounds or less pressure, to the 
square inch, or enough to conform to the speed and 
weight of the car; the initial pressure being about 300 
pounds. The air is supplied, therefore, from the main 
reservoirs of the cars to the auxiliary ones at this 
reduced pressure, of 50 pounds, and is from them 
allowed to pass into the brake cylinders by means of a 
valve controlled by the motorman. The brake is directly 
applied by the movement of two piston rods with which 
the brake cylinder is provided. These pistons are held 
by a spring with the end of one in close proximity to 
the end of the other, the intermediate space being occu- 
pied by the spring. When the brakes are to be set the 
motorman opens the valve which connects the reservoir 
with the space between the ends of pistons, thus forcing 
them apart against the spring tension and applying the 
brakes. When the valve is closed, and the air supply 
cut off from the space between the pistons, the action of 
the spring draws the pistons together again and the 
brakes are released. 


WESTINGHOUSE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE EQUIP- 
MENTS. 


Schedule S. M. 


The straight-air brake may be installed with the mo- 
tor-driven, or axle-driven compressors, or with storage 
reservoirs, its operation being independent of the source 
of air supply. The straight-air-brake equipment is only 
in favor for cars which operate singly. Straight-air- 
trailer equipment, Fig. 144, can be used for all cases 
where cars operate in trains of two or more ears. 

There are three schedules of this equipment, desig- 
nated, respectively, as ‘‘SM-1,’’ “‘SM-2”’ and ‘‘SM-3.”’ 
The arrangement of apparatus and its operation is the 
same in all three, but the details are different to suit 
the class of service. 

The ‘‘SM-1’’ Schedule (Fig. 144) consists of the fol- 
lowing: 

1. A dust and water-proof, motor-driven, air com- 
pressor to supply the air for operating the brakes; it is 
suspended, so as to secure the best possible ventilation, 
in an open suspension cradle, which is so constructed that 
no vibrations of the machine are communicated to the 
car body, and any part of it is easily accessible for ex- 
amination. 

2. An electric pump governor designed to automat- 
ically stop and start the compressor at given maximum 
and minimum air pressures, the type and size of 
governor corresponding with the compressor; a ‘‘feed- 
valve’’ type, having independent maximum and mini- 

262 





THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 263 





Fig. 144. Westinghouse Straight Air Brake Equipment, Schedule S M-1. 


264. ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


mum regulation, an air-operated cut-out switch, and 
pneumatic blow-out; or, a diaphragm and _ slide-valve 
type, with air-operated switch mechanism, mechanical 
quick-break cut-out device and magnetic blow-out; or an 
electro-pneumatic type with a solenoid quick-break cut- 
out device; also an insulating joint and cut-out cock 
for the governor piping. 

3. <A non-areing enclosed fuse block placed in the 
wiring system that connects the trolley cireuit to the. 
governor and motor-compressor, to protect them. 





Fig. 145. Brake Valve, Schedule S M-1. 

4, An indicating snap switch for each cab, by which 
the current to the governor and motor compressor can be 
eut off at either end of the car. 

5. A welded reservoir in which the compressed air is 
stored. 

6. A brake cylinder of proper size to suit the car, the 
piston rod being so connected through the brake levers to 
the brake shoes that the hand brake can be applied with- 
out moving the piston. 

7. For each end of the car a brake valve (Fig. 145) 


THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 265 


of the slide-valve type, by means of which the brakes are 
applied and released; these valves being substantial in 
construction, simple to manipulate, economical in the use 
of air, thoroughly protected from interference, and pro- 
vided with a duplex air gauge forming the top of the 
valve itself and arranged so as to be always under the 
motorman’s eye. 

8. <A safety valve of special design to preclude the 
possibility of over-charging the main reservoir and 
piping system. 





Fig. 146. Brake Valve, Schedule S M-2., 


The Schedule ‘‘SM-2’’ differs from the one just de- 
scribed in the following particulars: 

1. The electric-pump governor is of the electro-pneu- 
matic solenoid type. 

2. The fuse and block in the compressor circuit are 
of the same type, but not enclosed. 

3. The brake valve (Fig. 146) is the same without 
the duplex air gauge, a single pointer gauge being sub- 
stituted and mounted on the wall of the vestibule near 
the brake valve, and connected to the reservoir pipe 
under the brake valve, to show reservoir pressure only. 

4. The safety valve is omitted. 


x 


266 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The Schedule ““SM-3”’ differs from ‘‘SM-2”’ as fol- 
lows: 

1. The brake valve is of the rotary type, very sim- 
ple, having few parts, and provided with good oiling 
facilities. 

2. The cut-out cocks are omitted from the supply 
under each brake valve. 

The aims in equipping a car with air brakes are (1) 
safety, and (2) economy, in operation. To assure proper 
safety, the brake apparatus must be above all reliable, 
then simple, substantial, durable, easy to manipulate and 
understand. Experience shows that they can be relied 
upon to operate properly at any and all times. The 
parts that go to make up the equipments are all simple 
and easily understood. The apphances throughout have 
been designed to make meddling by unauthorized persons 
impossible. The brake valves cannot be turned when the 
handle is removed. The governors are reliable and effi- 
cient electric-pump governors. 





Ay 





Ek 





_- _ . 
HESS SL 3 4, 


HOSES USE 
Air Strayer r 
- BS 





Diagrammatic Illustration of the SME. 


Straight Air Brake Equipment with Emergency Feature. 














i 


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rf 
= 
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3 : EE OBE dee 2S: a 
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5 
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Lot iat, A Tpit 


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5 


MOTOR CAR 





WESTINGHOUSE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 
WITH EMERGENCY FEATURE. 


Symbol ‘““SME.”’ 


For Two-Car Train Operation. 


It will be readily appreciated that the straight-air 
_ system, while simple and flexible in the extreme, and 

heretofore almost universally used for single ears, is not 
adapted for train service, since in the event of a rupture 
of the ‘‘cylinder pipe,’’ due to the parting of the train, 
or any other cause, the use of the brake is immediately 
lost. In order to meet this condition—the seriousness 
of which is obvious—the straight-air brake, with the 
emergency feature, has been introduced. It is designed 
either for single-car operation or for trains not exceed- 
ing two cars. It will be observed in Fig. 147 that this 
apparatus is especially applicable for two combinations: 
First, a motor car and trailer, and, second, two motor 
cars. On many roads where transportation facilities 
are normally ample, but severely taxed during morning 
and evening rush hours and holidays, the use of a trailer 
has proven of very great advantage, increasing carrying 
capacity without a corresponding increase, either in the 
original investment or in the operating force necessary. 
As will be evident, with the ordinary form of straight- 
air brake there is a large element of danger in this 
practice, particularly where grades prevail, for which 
the ‘‘SME’’ equipment provides exactly what is re- 

267 


268 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


quired, inasmuch as this apparatus insures absolute con- 
trol of both the motor car and trailer at all times, and, in 
consequence, a greatly increased factor of safety in oper- 
ating under ordinary service conditions. 

The next step in the development of the train service 
idea, and one to which progressive railway men have 
recently devoted considerable attention, is the combina- 
tion of two motor ears. The advantages of this method 
of handling heavy traffic through congested districts are 
manifest, since train units of large capacity may be 
made up quickly and operated on short headway, thereby 
increasing the earning power of the system as a whole, 
while reducing the number of employees required. The 
straight-air brake with emergency feature is also rec- 
ommended for this service, especially when the motor 
cars are operated separately a greater portion of the 
time and only at intervals in trains. 

The advantages of the ‘‘SME’’ equipment are due 
to a novel arrangement of parts with particular refer- 
ence to the brake valve and emergency valve, which em- 
body a construction pecuhar to this apparatus. By ma- 
nipulating the brake valve, air pressure in normal sery- 
ice is admitted to and exhausted from the brake cyl- 
inder through the ‘“‘cylinder pipe’’ as in ordinary 
straight-air operation. At the same time, by an ingeni- 
ous arrangement of ports, pressure is constantly main- 
tained in the ‘‘brake pipe.’’ Should it be imperative 
to stop the train in the shortest possible distance to avoid 
accident, the brake valve handle is thrown to its emer- 
gency position, establishing communication instantly and 
automatically between the ‘‘brake pipe’’ and brake cyl- 
inder through the emergency valve, resulting in an emer- 
gency application, The brake valve (Fig. 148) is of 


THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR BRAKE CO, 


+INCH STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE VALVE. 


Application Position, 


Ly 


UY 
LILLY 


‘ 


\\ [REDUCED MAIN RESERVOIR 
\ PRESSURE 


i ATMOSPHERIC res 
PRESSURE M R 
FROM MAIN RESERVOIR TO DOUBLE CHECK 
AND SLIDE VALVE FEED VALVE VALVE AND CYLINDER 








THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 269 


simple form, it has few parts, separate bracket for pipe 
connection, affords efficient lubrication, and wears uni- 
formly between valve and valve seat. 

The emergency valve (Fig. 149) controls communica- 
tion from the ‘“‘brake pipe’’ to the brake cylinder and 
operates only in emergency, atthe will of the motorman, 
or automatically should the train happen to part. This 
device is bolted to a special cylinder head which earries 
all pipe connections, thus permitting easy removal for 
inspection, clearing and repair. 





ee ae Fig. 149. Emergency Valve 
Fig. 148. Brake Valve, SME. SME. 


The brake cylinder (Fig. 150) is of a size, propor- 
tioned to the weight of the car in order to insure a sat- 
isfactory leverage ratio, has a piston rod designed ta 
secure maximum efficiency of the hand brakes, which 
may be applied through the same leverage system, but 
without moving the brake-cylinder piston. 

The air pressure is supplied by a dust and water-proof 
motor-driven air compressor (Fig. 151), with open cradle 
suspension to secure good ventilation and designed to 


270 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


prevent the transmission of vibration to the car body, 
and also provides for easy inspection. 

The automatic governor for controlling the operation 
of the compressor between predetermined maximum and 
minimum pressure limits, is of simple construction and 
reliable in operation under all service conditions. In the 
ease of equipment for two motor ears, the governor is 
also designed to secure uniform pump labor on both 
cars. 





Fig. 150. Brake Cylinder with Brake Valve, SME. 


In addition the ‘“‘SME”’’ equipment ineludes a non- 
arcing enclosed fuse block and fuse, installed in the 
pump ecireuit to protect the motor against an excessive 
flow of current; a snap-switch for each cab, by which 
the current to the motor-compressor and governor may 
be cut off at either end of the car; a safety valve of im- 
proved design, to protect the overcharging of reservoirs 
and ‘‘brake pipe’’; a muffler, which prevents the dis- 
agreeable noise due to. brake-cylinder exhaust; hose 
couplings, providing flexible connections for ‘‘eylinder 
pipe’’ and ‘‘brake pipe’’ between the cars, and steel 
reservoirs, for storing the compressed air. The rec- 


THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR BRAKE CO. 


+INCH STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE VALVE. 


Release Position. 


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THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE pat 


ommended reservoir capacity is divided into two units— 
first, by reason of greater convenience in installing, and 
second, to secure freedom from moisture in the brake 
system. 





Fig. 151. Compressor, SME. 


It will be apparent that this apparatus combines 
safety and reliability, which are the important and es- 
sential features of an automatic brake, with advantages 
heretofore peculiar to the straight-air system, chief of 
which is the ability to graduate the brake at will either 
in application, or release. 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. 
RATING AND CAPACITY. 


The rating of a steam locomotive is based on its max- 
imum tractive effort, and its capacity depends upon the 
maximum speed at which this tractive effort may be 
developed. The maximum rate of doing work, for which 
it is possible to design a steam locomotive is therefore . 
governed by practical limitations as to the steaming 
capacity of the boiler and the dimensions of the fire-box. 
On the other hand the electric locomotive does not gen- 
erate its own power, but acts merely as a transmitting 
medium, through which electric power delivered by the 
central power station to the locomotive is converted into 
mechanical power at the driving axles. Each driving 
axle of an electric locomotive being equipped with a 
motor, the size and horse power of which is limited only 
by the speed at which it operates, by the gauge of the 
track, and by the diameter of the driving wheels, it be- 
comes only necessary to provide a sufficient number of 
driving axles in order to design an electric locomotive 
capable of delivering the maximum tractive effort that 
the draw bars of a train will sustain, at any speed per- 
mitted by considerations of safety in operation, and a 
reasonable cost of track maintenance. 

Herein lies the chief advantage of the electric locomo- 
tive, the increase in speed of the heavy freight trains 
making it possible to double and in many eases triple the 
tonnage capacity, and consequently the earning power 
per mile of track. For example, the most powerful 

212 








THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 





I 
OD 


New York Central Electric Locomotive. 


274 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


steam locomotive in existence, the six-axle, twelve-wheel 
Mallet Articulated Compound, built for the Baltimore & 
Ohio Railway by the American Locomotive Company, 
will develop its maximum tractive effort of 71,500 pounds 
working compound, at a speed of less than 10 m. p. h., 
whereas an eight-axle electric locomotive having the same 
weight on drivers and composed of two four-axle sec- 
tions coupled together (wheel classification 0880) could 
be made to develop an equal tractive effort at a speed 
of 30 miles per hour. It will be seen that such an electric 
locomotive could handle three times the daily tonnage 
of the Mallet Compound referred to above, increasing 
the traffic capacity of the road in the same proportion. 

In converting electrical into mechanical power, part 
of the electrical power is lost in the windings, and in 
the magnetic circuit of the motors, taking the form of 
heat and causing a rise in temperature proportional to 
the power loss and to the radiating capacity of the 
motor. The losses, and consequently the temperature rise 
increase with the power developed by a given motor, 
and the maximum load cannot therefore be safely carried 
beyond the point where permanent injury to the wind- 
ings will result from excessive temperature. Long ex- 
perience with the various insulating materials known to 
the art has shown that the best of these cannot be re- 
peatedly subjected to a temperature rise greatly exceed- 
ing 75 degrees C. above the air without deterioration. 
There has therefore been adopted for railway motors a 
standard rating, defined as the horse power delivered at 
the axle continuously for a period of one hour, with a 
rise in temperature not exceeding 75 degrees C. 


‘The rating of the electric locomotive, like the steam 
locomotive, is based on the maximum tractive effort the 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE DAEs) 


locomotive will exert for short periods of time, fixed by 
mechanical considerations, such as weight on drivers, 
and by electrical conditions, such as overload capacity of 
the motors. The capacity of the electric locomotive on 
the other hand, is determined by the heating of the 
motors in continuous operation, this heating being de- 
pendent upon the operating conditions, such as length 
of run, grade, curves, weight of train, schedule speed, 
number and duration of stops and lay overs. 





Fig. 158. New York Central Locomotive with Train. 


In order to provide a margin to cover changes in as- 
sumed operating conditions, and possibility of occasional 
inerease in duty, the estimated temperature rise in serv- 
ice operation should not as a general rule be greater 
than 60 to 65 degrees C., although occasions may in- 
frequently arise where a higher value may be safely 
_ taken. 


276 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


FORCED VENTILATION. 


In the smaller sizes of motors, where the radiating 
surface is large in proportion to the weight, it is possible 
to carry off excessive heat by natural ventilation. This 
method applies also to many of the larger sizes of loco- 
motives in cases where the grades are light, and where 
the average power developed during the run is not 
greatly in excess of one-third of the rated capacity. If, 
however, the service is especially severe, calling for the 
movement of heavy trains at high speeds, or up long 
grades, it is necessary to use a system of forced ventila- 
tion. This is accomplished by taking the air from the 
side of the locomotive through a screen by means of a 
small high-speed blower, which delivers the air into a 
header from which connections are made to the frames 
of the motors. 


MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION. 


The possibility of equipping each axle with its own 
power, thus avoiding connecting rods and long rigid 
wheel base, makes it feasible to adopt a very simple and 
flexible construction in the design of the trucks and run- 
ning gear of the electric locomotive. The tendency in 
electric locomotive design has been in the direction of 
the swivel truck type, each unit having two such trucks, 
and each truck as a general rule being equipped with two 
electric motors. In the smaller sizes of locomotives or 
where the speeds are low, a two-axle truck is usually 
adopted, each axle being equipped with motors, but in 
the larger sizes of locomotives, or where speeds of 60 to 
75 miles per hour are to be attained, the construction 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 201 


often recommended consists of a four-axle truck, the 
two inside axles being the driving axles and equipped 
with motors, and the two outside axles being used for 
guiding. Hach truck is swiveled on center plates of 
ample size to transmit the tractive effort. The trucks 
are symmetrical, with the weight largely concentrated 
near the center, and as the outer ends of the truck are 
relatively light, the truck as a whole has small turning 
inertia, and is easily controlled by the guiding wheels 





Fig, 154. Longitudinal Section of Bipolar Gearless Direct 
Current Motor. 


without producing strains liable to affect the track align- 
ment. The draw heads are attached to the locomotive 
frame, leaving the trucks free to follow curves, or any 
inequalities in the track. 

In heavy freight service, it is sometimes proposed to 
use an articulated construction, consisting of two three- 
axle, or two four-axle trucks, connected together by a 
hinged or articulated coupling, thus reducing the rigid 
wheel base. In this type the cab may consist either of 


278 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


a single rigid structure mounted so as to permit lateral 
movement of the truck, or it may be constructed in two 
sections, each mounted rigidly on its truck, the two sec- 
tions being connected flexibly together. 

While as a general rule these types may be made to 
eover all conditions of heavy freight or passenger work, 
occasion may arise where other designs may for various 
reasons, such as possible reduction in cost or concentra- 
tion of large power in one unit, be found desirable. The 







Vip 














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atts wi 
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my 
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Fig. 155. Transverse Section of Bipolar Gearless Direct Current 
Motor. 


latter requirement, however, is of small importance from 
the fact that the system of control adopted for electric 
locomotives will permit two or more machines to be 
coupled together and operated by the engine driver as a 
single unit from any section. 

Following is a short description of the type of electric 
locomotives in service on the New York Central & Hud- 
son River Railway :* 


*To Mr. J.C. Irwin and Mr. S. A Bickford, both of New 
York Central, are due thanks for completeness of the following 
information. 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 279 


At each end of the locomotive is a swiveling truck 
with one axle; these axles carry 36 inch wheels. From 
the last driver axle to truck axle is 7 feet, and from truck 
axle to end of locomotive is 5 feet more. This with the 
13 foot driving wheel base gives a total length of 37 feet, 
or 30 feet shorter than a steam locomotive. 






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Fig. 156. Locomotive Motor. 


Each driving axle is 814 inches in diameter and has 
keyed to it a sleeve upon which is carried the armature 
core sleeve and the commutator hub, each separately 
keyed. The drivers are forced on the axles as usual, 
forming a rigid and solid unit. 

Fig. 156 shows one of these units standing inside its 
field coils with one driver removed to afford a better view. 

The top bar is not a mechanical part of the frame, but 
is one of the two pieces of soft steel, running the length 
of the motors to improve the conductivity of the magnetic 
eircuit. 

Since the commutator ends of the motors are the light- 
er, these bars lie on that side of the frame, preserving 


a mechanical balance. 


280 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


This bar shown in Fig. 157 runs the length of the four 
motors. 

In Fig. 156 the broad piece below the bar is the loco- 
motive frame, which together with the transoms acts as 
the main magnetic circuit. The transoms are bolted to 
the frame as shown. 

The five transoms in the middle of the frame carry 
bosses which serve as magnet cores and the field coils are 
placed on them. 











————— > 
i 


Ca 
SS ). Fae 
A 





Fig. 157. The First New York Central Locomotive. 


The pole face, not shown in Fig, 156, but in Fig. 157, 
is of soft iron sheets held between two heavier end pieces, 
dove-tailed to the magnet core and keyed. ‘These pre- 
vent the field coils from slipping off. 

The ordinary motor has a cylindrical pole face, but 
these are almost flat, so that the armature can stay still 
on the track, and the frame with the poles swings up 
and down without striking the armature. This shape 
also makes it possible to drop an armature down into a 
pit without disturbing the pole faces, or field coils. 

The brush holders being on the transoms, move up 
and down with the frame, being kept in contact with the 
commutator by springs. 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 281 


The collector shoes are also fastened to the frame, 
being kept on the third rail by springs. 

The field coils are 80 turns of copper ribbon 3 inches 
wide, insulated by card board. They are wound on a 
brass spool which is slipped into a shell, and the protec- 
tion completed by riveting the joints, and pouring the 
shell full of a bituminous compound. 

The journal bearings each have a pedestal resting on 
them which carries on its upper end a half elliptic 
spring. The bearings slide in Jaws of the frame. 

The weight of each pair of drivers, the axle, the com- 
plete armature, journal bearing, pedestal and spring, rest 
solidly on the track. The two trucks do the same. 

Everything else rests on the frame, and the frame is 
hung from the springs. 

The two trucks and the drivers furnish six axles to sup- 
port the weight of the frame and its load. 

Equalizing levers distribute the load properly, and 
eross equalizers give a three-point support. 

The superstructure consists of the cab in the center, 
and two end compartments. 


In the center of the cab stands the steam heating ap- 
paratus. A kerosene automobile burner heats a coil tube 
boiler, producing superheated steam. This, when passed 
through a reducing valve furnishes to the train abso- 
lutely dry low pressure steam. In this way the size 
of plant capable of heating a train is reduced to a 
minimum. The fuel, and water pumps are motor driven. 

At one end of this heater is the motor driven air com- 
pressor. There are two motors on its shaft connected in 
series. This gives 300 volts per motor and enables them 
to run at the low speed of 175 R. P. M. The compressor 
supplies 130 lbs. of air for braking, whistling, bell ring- 


282 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


ing, and sanding. It is regulated by a starting and stop- 
ping switch which is opened and closed by an electro 
magnet. This magnet is operated by a switch, opened and 
closed by the action of the air on a diaphragm. 125 
lbs. pressure starts, and 135 lbs. stops the motors. 

At both corners diagonally opposite, are duplicate sets 
of controlling apparatus. They consist of the controller 
bar, and reverse lever under the left hand. In front are 
the automatic and straight air brakes, the hand sander, 
the ammeter and air gauge, and the control circuit switch. 
At the right hand is the air blast sander, bell and whistle 
valves. 





Fig, 158. Motor Armature. 


The end compartments contain a central aisle, and on 
either side in asbestos lined sheet steel cabinets are con- 
tained the other apparatus of the control. 

Each of these four cabinets (two at each end) contains 
the resistances and the contactors for one motor. Evenly 
distributed among the four are the two reversers, the 
main power switch, the circuit breaker, the throttle relay, 


THE ELECTRIG LOCOMOTIVE 283 


air pressure governor, air sanders, and the contactors for 
motor combinations. 

The lighting and head light switches are in the aisles 
for ready access. 

A view of a.complete armature mounted on driving 
axle is given in Fig. 158. 

The locomotive is fitted with the Sprague-General 
Electric Type M Control, with a controlled acceleration. 

There is a friction clutch attached to the main shaft of 
the controller, operated by a magnet. This magnet is in 
the circuit of wire 18, which also contains a magnetically 
operated switch. 

The operating coil of the switch is a part of the main 
power circuit leading to motor No. 2. 

When the motor is taking less than 900 amperes from 
the line the magnet is too weak to close the switch, and 
so the locking coil is not energized, and the controller 
handle is free to be moved. 

Should the motor current rise above 900 amperes the 
magnet closes the switch, the lock coil throws the clutch 
and the engineer can not advance the handle until the 
current falls to its normal value. 


Fig. 159 shows the wiring of the four motors, their 
resistances and contactors as arranged in the New York 
Central locomotive No. 6000, the first one built. 

The terminals marked T are connected to the third 
rail or ‘‘trolley,’’ those marked R to the rails or return 
eireuit, often called ‘‘ground.’’ 

The armatures are represented by circles and the fields 
by squares. The resistances are shown by the crooked 
lines, being a rough imitation of the shape of the cast 
iron grids used as resistances. 

On No. 1 motor at the top has been indicated how the 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


284 


‘QATJOUINNO'T 





OG CL SIE 2 HW 4 


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‘6ST “SI 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 285 


leads go to a reverser, but this has been omitted from 
the rest of the diagram for the sake of clearness. 

Each number represents a contactor, and when the 
contactor is closed the gap in the circuit as shown in the 
diagram is closed, and the current is permitted to pass. 

The wiring which actuates these contactors is called 
the control system and will be the subject of another 
illustration. This diagram (Fig. 159) only shows the 
main or power circuits. Each wire in the control is 
numbered and this number is used to refer to it. 

The controller which actuates these 47 contactors has 
24 positions or notches numbered consecutively. Nos. 10, 
17 and 24 are running positions, placing the motors at 
N 10 all in series; at N 17 in series-multiple; 1. e., two in 
series and two in parallel or multiple; at 24 all in mul- 
tiple. This gives quarter, half, and full speeds. At 
all the other notches there is more or less resistance in 
the circuits, and the controller must not be left perma- 
nently at any notch but these three. 

The motors are numbered from the top of Fig. 159 
down, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4. The numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 
after a symbol denote the motor to which the part be- 
longs. 

F 1 denotes the field of motor No. 1. R 12 denotes the 
second resistance (counting from left to right) of the 
first motor. R 36 denotes last resistance of third motor. 

Each motor has a set of six resistance grids, whose 
total for each motor is 0.4 ohm, and whose parts have 
resistances as given in Table A. In Table B is given the 
resistance left in each motor circuit when the previous 
grids are cut out. 


286 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


TABLE A: 


Resistance 1—0.120 ohm. 
Resistance 2—0.085 ohm. 
Resistance 3==0.055 ohm. 
Resistance 4—0.050 ohm. 
Resistance 5—=0.046 ohm. 
Resistance 6—0.044 ohm. 


‘TABLES. 


Resistance 1 to end=0.40 ohm. 
Resistance 2 to end=0.28 ohm. 
Resistance 38 to end=0.195 ohm. 
Resistance 4 to end=0.14 ohm. 
Resistance 5 to end=—0.09 ohm. 
Resistance 6 to end—0.044 ohm. 


There are four other resistances, one per motor, located 
as follows: 


B 1 between contactor 4 and R. 
B 2 between F 2 and 12. 

B 3 between A 3 and 30. 

B 4 between 45 and R. 


These resistances are 0.48 ohm each. B 2 and B 3 
are used as bridge resistances to prevent short circuits 
when changing from slow to middle speed. B 1 and B 4 
are used as resistances during electrical braking. 

Fig. 160 shows the electrical connections of a locomo- 
tive reverser. 

The right and left sides are exact duplicates, so only 
one side will be described, 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 287 


As shown the S portion of the reverser is shut, and 
the O part is open. The magnets and link bars operating 
the two pairs of toggles S and O are left out, in order 
to make the diagram more simple. 

T represents a tap from the main power cable, and 
may be considered as ‘‘trolley.’’ 

The current comes from T, goes through B to the 
armature a (cirele), thence to C and passes through the 
field f (square). The same thing happens on the other 
side of S. 





Fig. 160. Diagram of Locomotive Reverser. 


If, however, the magnet connected to O is energized, 
the toggles O will straighten and close the contacts L 
and N on both sides. The magnet S being interlocked 
with O is now de-energized, and the S toggles loosen and 
contacts C and B open. 

Then the current goes from T to L and through the 
armature in opposite direction than before, thence to N 
and through the field in the same direction as before. 
The motor now reverses. 


288 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


OPERATION OF CONTROL. 


The controller levers are not removable, and for the 
purpose of this explanation they are assumed to be both 
in place in the off position. There is but one reversing, 
and one air wrench with each locomotive, and in order 
to remove the reversing. wrench, it is necessary that 
the controller levers be in the off position. Likewise it 
is necessary that the air brake wrench be at lap position 
before it can be removed. The first work of the en- 
gineer is to move the reversing wrench to forward 
position. This puts wire 8 to trolley and ground (T and 
Rk), and the control current passes through the reverser 
magnets, and pulls both to the forward position. 

Wires 41 and 42 now close contactors 1-5-21 and 
28-44-36. These are always closed while the locomotive 
is running. 

Notch 1 now energizes W 1, closing C 2-24-46, com- 
pleting a series circuit of the four motors and 1.6 ohms 
resistance. 

For the next nine notches these contactors remain 
closed, and in addition other contactors close and open 
as follows: 

Notch 2 energizes W 6, closing C 20, cutting out all 
of the resistance belonging to M 2, thus reducing the 
total extra resistance to 1.2 ohms. 

Notch 3 energizes W 7, which picks up C 20 (which 
W 6 no longer holds) and also C 42, which cuts out 
0.4 ohms more, reducing resistance to 0.8 ohms. 

Notch 4 energizes W 10, which holds up C 20 and 42 
and also closes C 34, cutting out 0.4 ohms more. 

Notches 5-6-7-8-9: While W 10 continues to be ener- 
gized holding C 20-34-42, wires 11-12-13-14-15 are suc- 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 289 


cessively energized, closing C 6-7-8-9-10 one after the 
other. Thus gradually reducing the resistance from 0.4 
to 0.044 ohms, as shown by Table B. Each contactor 
stays down until the following one closes. 

Notch 10: Wire 16 is energized and W 10 de-ener- 
gized, but C 20-34-42 are held up by W 16 and it picks 
up C 11 in addition, thus putting the motors in full 
series between Trolley 1 and Return 4, without resistance. 
N 10 is a running position at a slow speed. 


In moving from N 10 to N 11 many changes occur. 
W 41 and 42 are of course still working. W 5 cuts in 
and transfers C 2 and 46 from W 1 to itself, it also 
closes C 12 and 35. The two bridging resistances B 2 
and B 3 being together equal to 0.96 ohms prevent a short 
eircuit from T 3 to R 2. 

The cireuit containing B 2 is ealled a bridge because 
it bridges over what would otherwise be an opening in 
the circuit as the changes occur. 

W 1 now drops out of circuit, allowing C 24 to open, 
thus placing two motors in series between T and R. 

W 2 is now energized and closes C 25 and 23, cutting 
out B 2 and B 8, considerably reducing the resistance 
of each motor combination. 

W 10 now closes C 20 and 42, but not C 34 as it did 
before. W 10 ean only shut C 34 if C 24 is already 
closed. This is due to a system of interlocks. C 24 is 
now open, for it dropped when changed from W 1 
to W 5. 

The motors are now in series—multiple with half of 
the resistance in series. 

Notches 12 to 17 (both inclusive) energize in succes- 
sion W 11-12-13-14-15-16, closing C 6 and 29, then C 7 
and 30, etc., thus stepping out the remaining resistance 


290 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


until at N 17 there is a free running position with no 
resistance in. 

Between N 17 and 18 a change is made from W 2 to 
W 3 which performs same duties as W 2 and in addi- 
tion closes the bridges C 14 and 43. These two con- 
tactors produce no electrical changes, for the resistances 
were already cut out entirely by W 16 through the con- 
tactors under its control. 


W 16 can now be and is dropped without any elec- 
trical change. W 4 is now energized closing C 3-22-27-47. 
There are no short circuits caused, because between trol- 
ley and return on one side of the bridges are the motors, 
and on the other side are the double resistances, each 
0.8 ohms. 

W 2 is again taken up, which takes care of C 24-25, 
holding them up, and W 2 is dropped, letting go of C 14 
and 43. 

The motors are now in multiple, with resistance in 
series. 

Notches 19 to 24 keep W 2 and 4 energized and suc- 
cessively energize W 11-12-13-14-15-16, closing contactors 
four at a time, 1. e., C 6-15-29-387, then C 7-16-30-38, 
ete., until finally W 2-4-41-42 and 16 keep the contactors 
closed for free full multiple running. 

The spaces between N 10 and 11 and N 17 and 18 
are wider than the others to give room for enough 
motion to make the desired wire changes. These spaces 
must be passed over by a continuous motion of the con- 
troller arm. 

Wires 11 to 16 always close contactors four at a time, 
but the first and second times they are used, part of 
the contactors closed produced no electrical changes, and 
for simplicity mention of the fact was omitted. 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 291 


Contactors 4-26-13-45 are used when braking elec- 
trically in this way. 

A switch called a commutating switch is thrown and 
the controller pulled to first notch. 

The commutating switch brings in wires 17-4 and 5. 
W 17 closes contactors 4-13-26-45. 

W 4 and W 5 due to interlocks do not close as many 
contactors as they would if energized through main con- 
troller, so W 4 only closes 3-27 and W 5 only closes 12. 

Notch 1 of controller energizes W 41 and W 42. W 42 
as usual closes 28-36-44 while W 41 on account of in- 
terlocks only closes 5 and 21. The four motors are now 
in parallel across the track rails, all connection with third 
rail being cut off. They now act as generators and act. 
as brakes. | 

This ean only be done when one locomotive is on a 
train, owing to the fact that the other locomotive being 
so near (40 feet) acts as a short circuit. 

The one wire not mentioned, W 18, is the one called 
controller lock. It energizes the magnet of the friction 
clutch through a relay whenever current input exceeds 
900 amperes per motor. 

Table C gives the number of the control wire, ie con- 
tactors operated by it, and the notches of the controller 
making use of the wire. 

In this table and elsewhere 1 to 10 means both inclusive 
and 1-2-10 means separate numbers. 


GENERAL. 


The remarks pertaining to the Sprague-General Elec- 
tric type ‘‘M’’ eontrol will also apply to the electric 
locomotive control, except that the train cable in the 


292 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


locomotive control has twenty wires, seventeen of which 
are connected to the master controller and to the motor 
control apparatus. Of the remaining three wires two 
are used for the sander device, and one is an extra. This 
control, in the same way as on the Suburban Motor 
Cars, comprises two distinct sets of circuits, namely, 
the main or motor control circuits, and the master control 
motor circuits, the former being governed by the latter. 
Each locomotive has four motors, the control being ar- 
ranged for operating the motors first, all in series, then 
in series parallel, and then in parallel relation. The two 
ends of locomotive are designed the ‘‘A’’ end and the 
‘‘B’’ end, the main switch being located on the ‘‘B”’ end. 

The Motor Control on each locomotive consists of the 
following apparatus: 


Contactors. 

Reversers. 

Rheostats. 

Main switch. 

Main motor cut-out switches. 
Individual motor fuses. 


In addition to these pieces of apparatus there are four 
sets of third-rail contact shoes (two shoes in each set) 
and two overhead contact shoes, with the necessary main 
cables connecting them to the control apparatus on the 
locomotive. There is also a main cable extending through 
the locomotive, terminating with couplers at the ends, so 
that the third-rail shoes, and the overhead shoes of any 
two or more locomotives may be connected together. 
This cable is termed the Bus Line. The circuits from 
the contact shoes (both third-rail and overhead) are pro- 
tected by fuses, a set of two fuses in multiple being 
located near each shoe to protect the circuit of that shoe. 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 293 


From the third-rail shoes, or from the overhead shoes 
the main circuit is carried through the respective fuses 
of each to the main switch, and through the motor fuses 


to the contactors and thence to motors. 


tered. sitscrmrarstrmen anciesararerensintempeii 





Fig. 161. Contactor for Heavy Current. 


The Contactor (Fig. 161) is an electro-magnet switch, 
with two contact arms, and sets of contacts in multiple 
operated by one plunger. There are 43 of these con- 
tactors which are located in the end compartments of 
the cab, one group on each side of each end compart- 
ment. The contactors are suspended by insulating bolts 


294 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


from channel iron supports. The contactors are num- 
bered progressively around the cab, No. 1 being the near- 
est the No. 1 reverser. Each contactor has a plate with 
its number, which is attached in front above the are 
chute. 


Reverser for Locomotive. 


Fig. 162. 





Reverser (Fig. 162). There are two reversers; one in 
each end compartment. The No. 1 reverser, which is 
on the main switch end of the locomotive, has the arma- 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 





Grid Resistance. 


Fig. 163. 


296 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


ture and field leads of the two motors on that end con- 
nected to the studs of its contact brushes. The connec- 
tions of armatures and field leads for producing forward, 
and backward movement of locomotive are established by 
means of copper bars pressed against spring contact 
brushes, through a toggle mechanism. 

The Motor Control Rheostats (Fig. 163) are similar 
to those already described. These rheostats are located 
in four groups on the floor in end compartment of cab, 
under the contactors. | 

The Main Switch (Fig. 164) is a knife-blade, quick- 
break switch, with a lower mechanism for operating. The 
switch itself is enclosed in a box, lined with fire-proof 
insulation, the handle for operating being located out- 
side the box, where it is readily accessible. This switch . 
is located in ‘‘B’’ end compartment of cab. It should 
not be opened while current is on motors, except in an 
emergency. It should, however, be opened before the 
individual motor fuses, or contactors and reversers are 
examined. 

Main Motor Cut-Out Switches (Fig. 165) are for the 
purpose of cutting out the individual motors in case of 
any ground, or defect in a motor which renders it in- 
operative. There are four of these cut-out switches, one 
for each motor, and they are located on the sides of 
the cab, the switches for No. 1 and No. 2 motors being 
just over the No. 1 reverser and for No. 3 and No. 4 
motors over the No. 2 reverser. The number of the 
motor to which it is connected is marked on each switch. 
Each switch also has a small auxiliary control cut-out 
switch which opens, and closes with the larger switch 
for operating the circuit of the series contactor coils. 
These switches are normally kept closed, except in case 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 





Fig. 164. Main Switch, 


297 


298 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


of individual motor trouble. It should be seen that they 
are well closed, so that the small auxiliary switches 
make good contact. When one of these switches is 





Fig. 165. Main Motor Cut-out Switches. 


opened on account of motor trouble, the locomotive will 


not move until controller handle. reaches the eleventh 
notch. 





THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 299 


Motor Fuse Box (Fig. 166). There are four of these 
fuse boxes, each motor having its individual fuse. These 
boxes are located one over each third-rail shoe, just above 





Fig. 166. Motor Fuse Box. 





Fig. 167. Third Rail Shoe Fuse Box. 


the shoe fuse boxes. A copper ribbon fuse of 800 am- 
pere rating is used in these boxes. Hach box has marked 
on it the number of the motor whose circuit it protects. 

Third-Rail Shoe Fuse Boxes (Fig. 167) are similar 


300 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


to the motor fuse boxes, but somewhat larger. There are 
two of these arranged in multiple for each pair of third- 
rail shoes and are mounted on brackets just above their 
shoes. Copper ribbon fuse of 1,600 ampere rating is 
used in each of these boxes. 


Overhead Shoe Fuse Boxes are practically the same 
as those for third-rail shoe, but are mounted on the roof, 
two in multiple near each other. A copper ribbon fuse 
of 1,600 ampere rating is used here also. 


Third-Rail Contact Shoes. These shoes are of the 
‘‘Shlpper’’ spring actuated, under-running type. The 
shoe bracket is mounted on a wooden insulating beam. 
There are two shoes in multiple on each bracket. 


Overhead Contact Device (Fig. 168) is a_ pneu- 
matically operated shoe. There is a valve near each 
master controller in the cab, by means of which the 
shoe may be raised or lowered. When air is applied, the 
shoe is lifted so as to make contact with the overhead 
rail. When air is released the shoe drops; also if the 
shoe runs off the rail it is stripped automatically, and 
drops. Moving the handle forward operates a pilot valve, 
by means of which a slide valve is thrown to admit air 
from the reservoir, to the cylinder of contact shoe device. 
Pulling the handle back operates another pilot valve, and 
the slide valve is thrown over to connect air chamber 
of contact device to exhaust. The handle will spring back 
to the middle position from either direction. There are 
two of these overhead contact shoes, which are controlled 
in common by either valve in the cab. They are mounted 
on wooden insulating blocks. It is very important that 
these shoes should not be raised when they will come 
in contact with overhead obstructions. 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 301 














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The Bus Line Coupler Socket (Fig. 169) has three 
spht plug contacts, which are connected together for 
obtaining sufficient carrying capacity. 

The Bus Line Coupler or Jumper is shown in Fig. 170. 


302 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 





Fig. 169. Bus Line Coupler Socket. 


MASTER CONTROL. 


The Master Control Apparatus comprises the follow- 
ing for each locomotive: 

Two master controllers. 

One main master controller switch. 

Two overhead master controller switches. 

One negative control switch. 

Train cable. 

Four train cable coupler sockets. 

One train cable coupler or jumper. 

One train cable connection box. 

One train cable cut-out switch, combining also a sec- 
ond train cable connection box. 

One current limit relay. 

Control fuses. 


The Master Controller (Fig. 171) contains two mov- 
able cylinders, which are geared together, and stationary 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 303 


Bus Line Coupler or Jumper. 


Fig. 170. 





304 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


contacts for each, mounted on insulation supports. The 
function of the controller in general is to supply current 
at the will of the engineer, to the train cable for oper- 
ating the reversers and contactors. The primary or slow- 


Master Controller. 


Wig L7 1: 





speed cylinder operates the contactors which produce 
motor combinations. The secondary or high-speed eylin- 
der operates those contactors which cut out the main 
motor resistance. The secondary cylinder is geared to 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 305 


the primary at the ratio of about three to one. Geared 
to the cylinders is a governor device, by means of which 
the movement of the controller handle, and the cylinders 
is checked when current through the motors exceeds a 
certain amount. The controller has a separate reverse 
cylinder, and there is a separate handle for this. The 
reverse handle can be thrown, only when the controller 
handle is in the ‘‘off’’ position. The ‘‘off’’ position of 
the controller handle is indicated, and is the extreme 
forward position of the handle. There are twenty-four 
operating notches and an ‘‘off’’ point on the controller 
dial ring. A latch on the handle engages the notches 
on the dial ring, and has to be released in moving from — 
notch to notch. The first ten operating notches are for 
series, the next seven for series parallel, and the next 
seven for parallel operation of motors. The tenth notch 
is full series, the seventeenth full series parallel, and 
the twenty-fourth full parallel position of motors, and 
at all other points, motors will have resistance in circuit. 


Main Master Controller Switch (Fig. 172) is located 
on side of passage way in ‘‘B’’ end compartment of cab, 
and is used for admitting current to master controllers, 
and should be closed to operate from either master con- 
troller. The main purpose of this switch is to cut off 
the line from the master controller fuse, which is located 
in this switch, in case the fuse has to be inspected or 
renewed. The fuse for this switch is 25 ampere capacity. 

The Overhead Master Controller Switches (Fig. 173) 
are located one over each master controller and are used 
for admitting or cutting off current from the controller 
over which it is located. 

The Negative Control Switch (Fig. 173) is located on 
the side of the passage way of the ‘‘A’’ end. Opening 


306 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Sander Switch on Locomotive. 


; also Main 


Pump Switch 


Master Controller Switch 


172: 





. 


Fi 





THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 307 


this switch cuts off eround from the reverser and con- 
tactor coils. It must be kept closed for operation. Or- 
dinarily it need not be touched. 

The Train Cable is composed of twenty conductors, 
which are attached to numbered plugs in the coupler 





Fig. 173. Master Controller Switch Without Fuse. Also Negative 
Control Switch on Locomotive. 


sockets, and there are branclies from seventeen of these 
wires extending to the master controller. These seven- 
teen wires are used as follows: 

No. 1—For operating series contactors. 

Nos. 2 and 5.—For operating series-parallel contactors. 

No. 3.—For operating bridge contactors. 


308 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Nos. 2 and 4.—For operating parallel contactors. 
Nos. 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 18, 14, 15 and 16.—F or operating 
resistance contactors. 


Train Cable Coupler Socket. 


Fig. 174. 





No. 18.—For operating controller governor. 
No. 0.—For operating reverser one direction. 
No. 8.—For operating reverser other direction. 


309 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 


B0[q Jetdnop s[qeo ulrer1y, 


g 


L 


T 





310 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Nos. 19 and 20 are used for operating the sander 
device. 
No. 17 is an extra wire. 


The Train Cable Coupler Socket (Fig. 174) has twenty 
contact studs. 


The Train Cable Coupler Plug (Fig. 175) has twenty 
contacts to agree with coupler socket. 


Train Cable Connection Boxes are used for making 
connections from master controller and coupler sockets 
to the train cable. One of these connection boxes (Fig. 
176) is combined with the twenty-point cut-out switch. 
This is mounted on the back of the master controller on 
the ‘‘A’’ end of the cab. This is the No. 2 connection 
box. The plain connection box (Fig. 177) is mounted on 
the back of the controller at ‘*B’’ end of the cab. No. 0 
wire from No. 1 box connects to No. 8 wire in No. 2 box, 
and No. 8 from No. 1 box connects with No. 0 in No. 2 
box. All other wires connect number to number. One of 
the wires in the outside layer is covered with green braid. 
This is No. 1 wire, the other wires of this layer being 
numbered in the counterclock-wise direction from this. 
The red covered wire in the inner layer is No. 14, the 
others being numbered counterclock-wise direction. 


The Current Limit Relay (Fig. 178) is located just 
above the No. 1 reverser and is provided for the purpose 
of checking a too rapid movement of the controller 
handle in getting the train up to speed. The relay coil 
is connected in series with No. 2 motor circuit. If the 
eurrent through the motor exceeds a certain amount, the 
relay plunger picks up, and closes a set of contacts 
which supplies current to the controller governor. The 
controller handle is thus held from being moved on, and 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE OL 


Box. 


10n 


. 


Cable Connect 


Ace ia 


Fig. 176. 





3 0 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


cannot be moved another notch until the current through 
the motor falls to a certain amount. . 

The Control Cut-Out Switch (Fig. 176) has already 
been referred to under the subject of Connection Boxes. 
The connection studs of this box also serve the purpose 





Hist ty ia Slain’ Connection) Box: 


of the No. 2 connection box. This cut-out switch serves 
the purpose of disconnecting the control circuits of con- 
tactors, and reversers on a locomotive from the train 
line. The cut-out switch has twenty sets of contacts 
which are connected, or disconnected accordingly as the 
handle is full around to the left or to the right. 





THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 313 





Fig. 178. Current Limit Relay for Locomotive. 


314 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Control Fuses (Fig. 176) are mounted on the same 
insulation back as the cut-out switch, and are contained 
in the same box. The fuses numbered from the top pro- 
tect the following circuits: 

No. 1—Series contactor coils. 

Nos. 2 and 5—Series parallel contactor coils. 

Nos. 2 and 4—Parallel contactor coils. 

No. 3—Bridge contactor coils. 

Nos. 8 and 9—The reverser operating coils. 





Fig. 179. Sectional View Air Pump Governor. 


Nos. 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16—The resistance 
contactor coils, respectively, one fuse protecting the con- 
tactor coils for each resistance step of controller. 

No. 17 is not required, but is extra. 

No. 18—Controller governor circuit. 

Nos. 19 and 20—Sander circuits, 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 315 


AIR-COMPRESSOR CONTROL. 


The air-compressor control comprises the following 
pieces of apparatus: 

A pump motor switch. 

A pump governor. 

A pump motor circuit contactor. 

Pump Motor Switch (Fig. 172) is located on the side 
of passage ‘‘A’’ end compartment. This switch is for 
the purpose of opening the pump motor circuit when 
locomotive is not in service. This switch contains a 40- 
ampere fuse, which protects the pump motor circuit. 

Pump Governor (Fig. 179) is located in ‘‘A’’ com- 
partment on side opposite No. 2 reverser. The governor 
is of the diaphragm type of construction, the movement 
of the diaphragm, as air pressure falls or rises, operating 
a lever mechanism which serves to give a quick make, and 
break to a small switch of the contactor type. This 
switch does not close the pump motor circuit itself, but 
closes the eireuit through the Pump Motor Circwit Con- 
tactor, which has higher current capacity on its contacts 
than the governor. This contactor is located to the left 
of the governor. When the air pressure in the reservoir 
falls to 130 pounds, the governor closes its contacts, 
thereby energizing the contactor coil, which in turn 
closes its contacts; the pump motor circuit being thus 
completed, the pump starts. When the air pressure 
reaches 140 pounds the governor opens the circuit of the 
contactor coil, which in turn opens and breaks the pump 
motor circuit and the pump stops. 

But the governor and the contactor have strong mag- 
netic blow-outs at their contacts, sufficient to handle any 
current which they may take in this service. 


4 


316 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 
TRACK SANDER CONTROL. 


The track sander control comprises the following 
pieces of apparatus: 

One main sander switch. 

Two sander operating switches. 

Two electro-pneumatic valves. 


° 





Fig. 180. Sander Operating Switch. 


Main Sander Switch (Fig. 172) located in the ‘‘A’’ 
end compartment of cab, is for the purpose of admitting 
or cutting off current from the sander operating switches. 
This switch contains a 10-ampere fuse. The switch 
should be opened when inspecting fuse. This switch has 
a plate marked ‘‘Sander.’’ 

Sander Operating Switches (Fig. 180) are located one 
on each side of cab near each master controller. These 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE ay. 


are double-throw switches and are marked ‘‘Sand For- 
ward,’’ ‘‘Sand Reverse.’’ Moving handle to the ‘‘For- 
ward’’ position energizes the valve which will apply sand 
to rail for forward direction. ‘‘Reverse’’ position of 
handle will apply sand for the reverse direction. 





Fig. 181. Electro-Pneumatic Sanding Valve. 


Electro-Pneumatic Valves (Fig. 181) are located one 
in each end compartment. One valve operates a sander 
for one direction of movement, the other valve operates 
a sander for the other direction, only one valve being 


318 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


operated at a time. The valve is operated by a magnet 
which is energized by current applied in the sander oper- 
- ating switch. | 


TRAIN OPERATION—GENERAL. 


Before attempting to start the locomotive the motor- 
man should first close the pump switch, then close the 
main switch and see that the main control switch and 
all the cut-out switches are closed. After the reservoir 
and train line are charged the overhead control switch 
over the controller, from which the locomotive is to be 
operated should be closed, and the reverser handle thrown 
in the direction of desired movement of locomotive. The 
motorman may then proceed on the signal. 

After releasing the latch on controller handle, pull con- 
troller handle to the first notch, then to the second notch, 
and so on, until the desired speed is attained. For 
coupling, with the locomotive, hight, the first or second 
notches will ordinarily be sufficient. If it is desired to 
get up to speed as soon as possible the handle may be 
moved around notch by notch, allowing the latch to take 
each notch until the last notch is reached. 

If the motorman feels at any point, the further move- 
ment of the controller checked, he should not exert un- 
due pressure on the handle—no more than is ordinarily 
required to move the handle from one notch to the next. 
Whenever the current through the motors is higher than 
a certain amount, the automatic governor acts, and stops 
the further movement of the handle. When the current 
falls to a certain amount the governor releases the con- 
troller cylinders, and another notch may be taken, and 
so on. Every notch on the controller should invariably be 
taken by the latch in moving controller on, whether in 


319 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 


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UL 9ATJOWIODOTT USATET MON 


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320 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


aceelerating or in throwing controller on with motors 
already up to speed. In throwing off, the notches need 
not be observed. 

The ‘‘off’’ notch of the controller may be called the 
zero notch. The first closed position of the controller is 
the first notch, and so on, the tenth notch being the full 
series position, the seventeenth notch the full series par- 
allel position, and the twenty-fourth notch the full par- 
allel position. The tenth, seventeenth and twenty-fourth 
notches may then be called running points. The inter- 
mediate points are resistance points, and should ordi- 
narily be used only for accelerating or switching. The 
tenth notch gives one-quarter speed, the seventeenth notch 
one-half speed, and the twenty-fourth notch full speed. 
The transition from the tenth to the eleventh notches and 
from the seventeenth to the eighteenth should be made 
promptly, withovt pause between. 

When the controller is on any notch the current passes 
from the master controller switch, through the master’ 
controller of the train cable of one or two locomotives, 
and thence to the reverser operating coils and the con- 
tactor coils, which correspond to the given notch, as 
shown in the following table. This table gives the num- 
bers of the contactors which are closed on each step of 
the master controller. The numbers that are underscored 
indicate the contactors which are closed on that step in 
addition to previous ones. 


Controller Steps. Contactors. Closed. 
1 1-2-4-19+22-25-33-41-42 
2  1-2-4-18-19-22-25-33-41-42 
3 1-2-4-18-19-22-25-33-39-41-42 
4  1-2-4-18-19-22-25-31-33-39-41-42 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE aye 


Series. ...... 5  1-2-4-5-13-18-19-22-25-26-31-33-34- 
39-41-49 
G2 4-5 G13 14918-19.29:95-26.27 - 
31-83-34-35-39-41-42 
7 1-2-4.6-7-14-15-18-19-22-25-27-28- 
31-33-35-36-39-41-42 
8 1-2-4-7-8.15-16-18-19-22-25.28. 
29-31-33-36-37-39-41-42 
9  1-2-4-8.9-16-17-18-19-22-25- 
29-30-31-33-37-38-39-41-42 
10 1-2-4-9-10-17-18-19-22-25-30-31-33- 
38-39-41-42 
First Bridge. _1-2-4-11-19-25-32-33-41-42 
Ut 241161 8-19-21-23-25-32.33.99- 
41-42 


Series 
Parallel. .12 — 1-2-4-5-11-13-18-19-21-23-25-26-32- 


33-34-39-41-42 
Series 
Parallel..13  — 1-2-4-5-6-11-13-14-18-19-21-23-25- 

26-27-32-33-34-35-39-41-42 

14 1-2-4-6-7-11-14-15-18-19-21-23-25- 
rae 28. 1 patie 35-5 36-39-41-42 

15 1.-2-4-7-8-11- 15- 16-1: T1972 1-23225- 
28-29-32-33- 36- 37-39-41-42 

16 1-2-4-8.9-11- 16- 17-1 VG210 2) 12232252 
29-30-32-33- 37-38- -39-41-42 

17 1-2-4-9-10-11-12-17-18-19-21-23-25- 
30-31-32-33-38-39-40-41-42 


322 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Second Bridge  1-2-4-12-19-21-23-25-33-40-41-42 
18 1-3-4-19-20-21-23-24-25-33-41-43 


Parallel....19  1-3-4-5-13-19-20-21-23-24-25-26.33- 

34-41-43 

20 1-3-4-5.6-13-14-19-20-21-23-24-95. 
26-27-33-34-35-41-43 

21 1-8-4-6-7-14-15-19-20-21-23-24. 95. 
27-28-33-35-36-41-43 

22. 1-8-4-7-8-15-16-19-20-21-23-24-25- 
28.29-33-36-37-41-43 

23 1.3-4-8-9-16-17-19-20-21-23-24.95. 
29-30-33-37-38-41-43 


Parallel....24 1-3-4-9-10-17-18-19-20-21-23-24-25- 
30- 31-3 33-38- 3-39. 41-43 


If the reversers are not already thrown to the position 
corresponding with the position of the reverser handle, 
when the controller is thrown to the first notch, current 
will first pass through the proper operating coil to 
eround. After the reversers have reached the correct 
position interlocking contacts on each reverser cut off 
eurrent to ground, and establish a circuit through three 
eontactor coils. Moving the reverse handle does not 
operate the reversers, but simply arranges the contacts, 
so that when the controller is turned to the first position, 
reversers will be thrown in the proper direction. The 
operating coil for one direction on one reverser is in 
multiple with the corresponding coil on the other re- 
verser, these two coils being controlled by one wire from 
the master controller, and protected by one fuse. 


323 


’ THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 


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324 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


On the first notch the main or motor current flows 
from the third-rail shoes, or from the overhead shoes 
through the shoe fuses to the main switch, then through 
the No. 1 motor fuse, through the reverser and No. 1 
motor, through a set of rheostats to reverser and No. 2 
motor, then through the other reverser and No. 3 motor 
through a set of rheostats, then through another set 
of rheostats to reverser and No. 4 motor and then to 
ground. The four motors are here all in series, with all 
the resistance in circuit; and the locomotive, if light, 
may start, or if coupled to a train may simply take up 
draw-bar slack: Each of the next three steps cuts out 
one complete set of motor resistance, and on succeeding 
steps, until full series is reached, the remaining set is 
eut out in six more steps. After full series, between the 
tenth and eleventh notches, bridge connections are estab- 
lished, and then on the eleventh notch motors are thrown 
in series parallel relation. Resistance is cut out in six 
steps to full series parallel, the seventeenth notch. Bridge 
connections are then established and motors are then 
thrown all in parallel, the resistance being cut out again 
in six steps. When motors are in parallel each is pro- 
tected by its own fuse. 


When it is necessary to reverse the direction of train 
movement, leaving controller handle in the off position, 
throw the reverser handle in the opposite direction, and 
then move controller handle on in the same way. The 
reverser handle is to be thrown in the direction corre- 
sponding to direction of movement required. The motors 
should not be reversed while the locomotive is moving, 
except in case of emergency, and then the wheels would 
probably slip. If it is necessary to reverse while moving, 
do not throw the controller handle beyond the first notch, 


325 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 


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326 ; ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


if all the motors are cut in, or beyond the eleventh oo 
if one motor is cut out. 

When operating on an overhead rail section, the over- 
head contact shoe will be tripped, and will drop, on leav- 
ing this section. The motorman should, however, as an 
extra precaution, throw the valve handle back. EHither 
for raising or lowering the overhead shoe it is necessary 
to hold the handle in position only long enough for the 
shoe to start movement. 

To sand the rails the Sander Operating Switch should 
be moved over in the direction of movement of the 
locomotive. To stop the sand the handle of this switch 
must be brought back to the middle position. 

The control cut-out switch, if open, disconnects the 
operating parts of contactors and reversers on the loco- 
motives from the train cable, but does not affect the op- 
eration of the other locomotive if two are connected to- 
gether, although it is cut out on the locomotive whose 
master controller is being operated. ‘The control con- 
nections for the reverser are so arranged that unless it 
is at the proper position, current is cut off from con- 
tactors, so that motors on that locomotive will receive no 
eurrent. In case of electrical trouble within the master 
controller, train cable, couplers, or connections boxes, the 
single fuse in the master control switch will protect 
them. In ease of local trouble on contactors or reversers 
the fuses in the cut-out switch will protect the circuit. 


The electric locomotives in service on the New York, 
New Haven and Hartford Ry. were furnished by the 
Westinghouse Company. The overhead construction for 
the transmission of current on this line is supported 
from steel bridges which are located every 300 feet and 
which normally span from four to six tracks, although on 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 327 


certain portions of the road longer bridges are employed. 
Every two miles the bridge is made of a specially heavy 
construction—forming an anchor-bridge to make the 
overhead structure even more secure. The trolley wires 
are hung from steel messenger cables which, in turn, are 
supported by heavy insulators mounted upon the steel 
bridges. Each trolley wire is suspended from a pair of 
steel messenger cables by triangular supports, forming a 
double catenary suspension of great strength and stiff- 
ness. The triangular supports are placed about ten feet 
apart. The messenger cables have a total sag of about 
six feet, while the trolley wire itself is held in a practi- 
eally horizontal position. 


The trolley system is divided into sections approxi- 
mately two miles in length, each section being separated 
from its neighbors by heavy line insulators. Adjoining 
sections are connected through automatic oil-type circuit 
breakers. If a short circuit or other trouble occurs in 
any section, therefore, it can be cut out without dis- 
turbing the operation of other portions of the line. Two 
feeder wires are carried the whole length of the alter- 
nating-current line and are so connected to the various 
sections of the trolley system by automatic switches that 
any section of four or more trolleys can be eut out of 
service, and those beyond kept in operation. 


The trolley wires are held normally at a height of 22 
feet above the track. The overhead system is designed 
with a safe margin to meet the stresses imposed by the 
most severe conditions—such as high winds or heavy 
coatings of ice. 

Following is a brief description of these locomotives, 
which are adapted to use either direct, or alternating 
current : 


328 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The frames, trucks, and cabs, of the locomotives were 
built by the Baldwin Locomotive Company, according to 
designs developed with the co-operation of the New 
Haven Railroad, and the Westinghouse Electric and 
Manufacturing Companies. 

The Frame. As the entire space between the wheels 
is occupied by the motors, it was impossible to transmit 
the draw-bar pull through the center line of the locomo- 





Fig. 185. One Truck of New Haven Locomotive. 


tive; consequently the entire strain is carried by the 
strong plate girders which make up the locomotive frame. 
A Westinghouse friction draft gear is mounted directly 
underneath the box girder at each end and is applied 
to two steel bumpers laid horizontally between vertical 
gusset plates on the ends of the side channels. 

The Trucks. The running gear consists of two trucks, 
each mounted on four 62-inch driving wheels. The trucks 
have side frames of forged steel to which are bolted, and 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 329 


riveted, pressed steel bolsters which carry the center 
plates. The weight on the journal boxes is carried 
by small semi-elliptic springs with auxiliary coiled 
springs under the ends of the equalizer bars, to assist in 
restoring equilibrium. A very strong construction is se- 
cured, without excessive weight by the use of bolsters 30 
inches wide at the center plate, and extended to nearly 
double that width at the ends which are bolted to the 
side frames. Center pins 18 inches in diameter transmit 
the tractive effort to the frame. They are well lubricated 
to permit free motion on curves. The truck pedestals are 
provided with wedge, and gib adjustments to take up 
wear, and the bearing brasses are easily removable by 
hand. The distance between truck centers is 14 feet, 6 
inches. 


Cab. The cab is formed of sheet steel mounted on a 
framework of Z bars which supports the walls and roof. 
Windows are provided at each end, giving an outlook on 
both sides and in front of the locomotive; and the driver 
is so close to the front that he can see the track a very 
few feet ahead. This advantage is not possessed by any 
type of steam locomotive now in service. The master- 
controllers, auto-transformers, instruments, grid resist- 
ances, air operating valves, compressors, and other auxil- 
lary apparatus are mounted inside the cab upon an angle- 
iron framework which is built into the cab, and securely 
anchored to floor and roof. <A clear passage-way is left 
through the center. Trap doors in the floor furnish easy 
access to the motors for inspection or repair. 


Equipment. The equipment of the locomotive includes 
four gearless motors, controlling apparatus and auxil- 
laries. ; 


330 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Motors. The motors are of the gearless type, designed 
for operation on both single-phase alternating, and direct 
eurrent. They are wound for approximately 235 volts 
on alternating current, and 275 to 300 volts when oper- 
ated by direct current. They have normal rated outputs 
of 250 H. P. on the basis of ordinary railway practice, and 





Fig. 186. One Complete Motor for New Haven Locomotive. 


a continuous capacity of 200 H. P. each. The locomotive 
therefore, has a continuous operating capacity of 800 
label ) 

The motor frames are made of cast steel, and are of a 
circular, skeleton form. They are divided horizontally 
into two parts in order to give access to the inside of the 





THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 331 


field, or to the armature. A laminated core, with slotted 
projecting poles is built up within this frame, and wound 
with field coils of flat copper strap insulated between 
turns with asbestos, and filled with an insulating com- 
pound which is heat-conducting, and waterproof, so that 
a sealed coil is produced, which can withstand moisture, 
and internal heat. Copper bars are placed in slots in the 
pole faces, and connected to form a continuous neutral- 





Fig. 187. Complete Armature Mounted on Locomotive Axle. 


izing winding, which forms part of the circuit including 
the main field coils, the armature coils and the auxiliary 
winding all in series. This auxiliary winding produces 
a magnetic field which opposes and neutralizes, the re- 
action of the armature. It is so formed that it need not 
be disturbed in order to remove the main field coils. 
The armature core is built up of soft steel punchings 
which are assembled on,a cast iron spider, and held in 
place and keyed to prevent their turning. The surface 


Bon ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


is slotted, and the armature winding is arranged in three 
layers. The two upper layers are composed of copper 
strap connected to form the usual direct-current type of 
winding. The third layer constitutes the preventive 
winding. It is connected between the commutator and 
the main winding. ‘This preventive winding is so propor- 
tioned as to prevent sparking, due to the normal working 
eurrent, and that which is produced in the coil under com- 
mutation, when short-circuited by the brush in an alter- 
nating field. The individual coils are insulated along 





Fig. 188. Armature Mounted on Quills. 


their entire length by overlapping layers of mica tape, 
and each group is further insulated from the core by a 
molded mica cell. The completed winding is held firmly 
in position by insulating wedges. The ends are banded 
down against the coil supports. 

Suspension. The weight of each motor is carried on a 
frame which passes over the wheels and side frames, and 
rests on the journal boxes. Each frame carries four bolts 
which receive the weight of the motor, and each bolt is 
fitted with a heavy coil spring at its lower end through 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE Bon 


which all weight is transmitted to it, so that the motor is 
earried on very flexible springs, and is independent of the 
truck frame. The torque of the motor, and the jar caused 
by sudden starts and stops, are transmitted from the 
motor to the truck through heavy tie-rods which affect 
the motion of the motor only lengthwise of the locomo- 
tive. The armature is not placed directly on a shaft but 
is built up on a quill through which the car axle passes 
with about five-eighths inch clearance all around. The 





Fig. 189. Driving Quill. 


bearings which carry the field frame are mounted on 
this quill, and from a flange at each end of the quill seven 
round pins project parallel to the shaft into correspond- 
ing pockets formed in the hub of the driving wheel. The 
torque of the motor is transmitted from these pins to the 
wheel through helical steel springs, which are wound with 
their turns progressively eccentric, and which are con- 
tained between two steel bushings, the smaller of which 
slips over the pin and the larger fits in the pocket in the 
wheel. These springs are under compression both longi- 


334. ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


tudinally, and horizontally so that, at all times, they fill 
the pockets in the wheel, but permit a vertical and a 
lateral motion. Their longitudinal compression between 
the quill, and the segmental cover over the outer ends of 
the pockets in the wheel keeps the motor at all times 
midway between the hubs. The end play of the motor 





Fig. 190. Pockets in Driver for Fingers of the Quill. 


does not come directly on the wheels, but is taken by 
strong coiled springs inside of the driving pins, which 
press against the covers in the outer ends of the spring 
pockets in the wheels. Though normally required to 
transmit only the torque of the motor, and to keep the 
motor axis parallel to the axle, these springs are amply 
strong to carry the entire weight of the motor, They 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 33) 


allow a total vertical movement of about 84 inch. The 
torque of the motor is taken by heavy parallel rods, 
which anchor the frame to the truck above, and below the 
axle, and permit vertical or side motion of the motor, but 
prevent excessive bumping strains from coming on the 
driving springs. If these springs are compressed more 

























f _ = 
Nay 





Le ee 
=f ler 





(4G 


LKQ 


a 


Fig. 191. Method of Placing Springs Between Quill Fingers and 
Driving Pockets. 


! 


than 14 inch by the heavy centrifugal force exerted by 
the motor when rounding curves, the force is taken up 
by noses on the motor which fit into corresponding re- 
cesses in the cross ties between the side frames of the 
locomotive. 


336 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


This suspension has the advantage of removing all 
dead weight from the axle, of driving through springs, 
and at the same time of having the motor thoroughly 
anchored to prevent undue strain on the driving spring. 
The only parts of the locomotive not spring supported 
are the driving wheels, axles and journal boxes. 

Forced Ventilation. The motors are arranged for 
ventilation, by a forced circulation of air which enters 
under pressure, is distributed throughout the motor, and 
escapes through the perforated covers. In the floor of 
the cab there is a natural conduit formed by the side 
channels of the frame, the floor and side walls of the cab, 
and a lower plate, through which air is carried to the 
motors, transformers and resistances. This method of 
cooling improves the continuous capacity of the apparat- 
us and is, in a large measure, accountable for the high 
continuous rating of the motors which almost equals that 
on the one-hour railway basis. The air furnished to the 
motor may be taken from the inside of the cab, and can 
therefore be kept relatively clean and dry. 


Current Collection. On the direct-current part of the 
line, current is taken from the third-rail system by eight 
collecting shoes, four on each side of the locomotive, 
arranged in pairs of two each. There are two pairs on 
each side, one at each end, for the purpose of bridging 
such gaps as may occur in the third-rail system. The 
direct-current contact shoes are designed to work on two 
forms of third rail—one in which the shoe runs under the 
rail, and the other on top of the rail. To collect alter- 
nating current from the high-potential overhead trolley 
line, the locomotive is equipped with two pantagraph 
type, bow trolleys, each of which has a capacity sufficiert 
to earry the total current required by the locomotive un- 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE SOL 


der average conditions—two being provided to insure 
reserve capacity. 

The Control System. On direct current the motors 
are controlled in series parallel as in ordinary railway 
practice. In alternating current operation no resistance 
is used in the regular run, but a small resistance, which 
constitutes a preventive device to diminish the short-cir- 
cuiting effect when changing from one transformer tap 
to another, is employed in passing from one working step 
to the next. There are six alternating-current voltages 





Fig. 192. Master Controller. 


or running points, corresponding to six taps from the 
auto-transformers, and there are a small number of mid- 
way steps, which are used only in passing between work- 
ing notches. Experience has shown that the number of 
steps required in alternating-current operation to give a 
smooth acceleration is considerably lower than in direct- 
eurrent practice. In consequence, the controller is so 
arranged that on alternating current about half as many 
steps are used as on direct current. Tests so far con- 
ducted show that the acceleration on both alternating, and 
direct current is very smooth. 


338 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


There is one feature of the direct-current control which 
is not generally found at the present time in direct-cur- 
rent equipments, viz., the shunting of the field for higher 
speeds. In the series position in direct-current operation, 
the motors have an efficient running point. «It is usual 
railway practice to pass from the series, to the multiple 
position without an efficient intermediate running speed. 
With the New Haven equipments, however, the type of 
motor used permits shunting of the field without impair- 
ment of commutation, or operation, and higher speeds 
are provided by shunting the fields before passing into, 
multiple. In this way several efficient running points are 
obtained between the series and multiple positions; and 
tests have shown that these motors operate properly on 
direct current with their fields shunted down to half their 
normal strength. When operated on direct current, the 
current is fed directly to the motors. On alternating cur- 
rent, however, auto-transformers are required, as the alter- 
nating-current trolley voltage is 11,000. Two such trans- 
formers form part of each equipment; one mounted on 
each side of the cab floor to balance the weight. They 
are connected in parallel across the high voltage, but on 
the low-voltage side each transformer feeds one pair of 
motors through a separate control unit. This means that 
the control system, when operated on alternating current, 
consists of two normally independent units. 


The main controllers are the Westinghouse electro- 
pneumatic unit switch type. The design differs somewhat 
from that used in direct-current service, because of the 
fact that the switches, blow-outs, ete., must operate on 
both alternating, and direct current, as many parts of the 
controller are common to both systems. The reversing 
switches are also parts of the unit switch groups. The 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 339 


main controllers are operated from master controllers at 
each end of the eab. The control system is arranged for 
multiple unit service, so that two or more locomotives can 
be coupled to the same train and handled by a single 
driver. | 

There are six switch groups, each containing unit 
switches. The two line switches are so connected in the 
switch groups that each carries the current supply to each 
pair of motors when they are operating in parallel com- 
bination. When the motors are in series, one of the line 





Fig, 198. Unit Switch Group. 


switches carries the current supply to all. Each line 
switch is provided with an overhead trip, so connected 
that all of the switches of both switch groups, as well as 
both the line switches open in case of an overload, or 
short circuit on either pair of motors or in the cireuit of 
either pair. The overload trip is automatically locked 
out when brought into action, and cannot be reset until 
the master controller is returned to the off position. 

The external resistances used in regulating the flow of 
current to the motors are arranged in two groups which 
are connected in series when the motors are in series, and 


340 CLECTRIC RAILROADING 


in series with each motor when the motors are in parallel. 
The change over between the direct current third rail, 
and the alternating current overhead system can be made 
easily and quickly, even when the locomotive is running 
at full speed. 

An ammeter is mounted in each end of the locomotive, 
in plain view of the operator, when at the master con- 
troller. 

The master controller is of the drum type, and is oper- 
ated by a lever which moves through an are of about 60 
degrees, with notches and latch wheel to define the dif- 
ferent positions. Reversing is accomplished by a separate 
handle, which interlocks with the main lever. When the 
master controller is in the off position, connections are so 
established that all circuit breaker trips which may be 
open are closed by the simple closing of a small switch 
conveniently located in the locomotive cab. Current is 
supplied to the control circuits by two sets of T-cell 
storage batteries, each of which has a capacity of 40 
ampere-hours and weighs 150 pounds. 


In connection with the switch groups, cut-out switches 
are provided so that either pair of motors may be cut out 
by simply rendering certain switches inoperative. It is 
thus possible to cut out the motors without manipulating 
the main cireuit. 

Auxiliaries. The auxiliary equipment includes two air 
compressors driven by motors, which ean be operated on 
either alternating, or direct current; two blowers driven 
by similar motors, and which furnish air to the trans- 
formers, motors and direct-current rheostats; oil circuit- 
breakers for the high-tension circuits; switches to change 
the equipment from alternating to direct current; a steam 
generator to supply heat to the railway coaches in cold 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 341 


weather; a complete Westinghouse air brake equipment, 
signal apparatus, automatic bell ringers, whistles, sanding 
apparatus, ete. 


Dimensions and Performance. The New Haven loco- 
motive measures 36 feet, 4 inches over the bumpers, and 
weighs approximately 85 tons. It is capable of handling 
a 200-ton train in local service on a schedule speed of 26 
miles an hour, with stops averaging about two miles apart 
—making in such service, a maximum speed of about 45 
miles per hour. It can also handle a 250-ton train on 
through service with a maximum speed of about 60 miles 
an hour. With heavier trains it is planned to couple two 
or more locomotives together, and operate them in mul- 
tiple. 

Tests. The tests which have been made on the first 
locomotive equipped show that it will, without difficulty, 
meet all the requirements for which it has been designed. 

This locomotive has, on actual test, repeatedly accel- 
erated a 200-ton train at a rate of .5 of a mile per hour 
per second, which is in excess of the rate required by the 
service conditions of the New Haven road. The locomo- 
tive has been operated at speeds above 60 miles per hour 
without difficulty. 

In Fig. 182 is shown a locomotive standing in D. C. 
zone with both trolleys and shoes down; when standing 
in A. C. zone, as in Fig. 183, both trolleys and shoes are 
up. In Fig. 184 is shown a regular New Haven train. 

One of the two trucks under the locomotive is shown 
in Fig. 185. One complete motor mounted on its pair of 
drivers is shown in Fig. 186. The eyes for the tie rods, 
three on each side show plainly. On a level with axle are 
two lugs on each side, through which the four suspension 
bolts pass. 


342 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The complete armature with the end plates which sup- 
port field, are shown in Fig. 187, mounted on the axle. 
Fig. 188 shows armature with its driving quills. Fig. 189 
shows one driving quill in greater detail. Note the cen- 
tral hole through which locomotive axle passes. The key 
way to connect armature spider to quill is shown. The 
driving pegs of quill are hollow to contain the end thrust 


springs. 





Fig. 194. Speed Recorder. 


Fig. 190 shows the outside of driver with the driving 
pegs in the pockets of driver. Two of these pockets have 
the cover plates in position. Fig. 191 gives the details 
of the springs. 

Fig. 192 shows the master controller, and Fig. 193 a 
group of unit switches. 

Each locomotive has a speed indicator whose mechan- 
ism is Shown in Fig. 194. It being a magneto, frictionally 
driven from a locomotive driver. 


ELECTRICALLY OPERATED TURN TABLES. 


In the yards of all our large railroads the hand oper- 
ated turn table has gone out of use, or ought to go at 
once. 

Locomotives are so heavy, some weighing 175 tons and 
a few even 200 tons, that it requires too many men to 
turn, especially in winter. 

In busy junctions and terminals, the hand turning, 
being so slow, is a great source of congestion and delay. 

A steam ‘‘donkey’’ or single wheeled locomotive is oc- 
easionally used to turn the table, being attached to. one 
end and running on the same rails as the wheels of the 
turn table. 

The equipment consists of a small vertical boiler, a 
steam engine, a water tank and a coal bin. Water and 
coal must be brought to the table, and ashes taken away. 
In many places a licensed engineer is required by law. 
If some old locomotive engineer has the job, it is wasting 
a valuable man on a poor job, as his knowledge of rail- 
roading, and the road should be utilized where they will 
be of service. 

It has often been suggested that a pipe be run from 
the station heating plant, or the shop boilers. Steam 
from this pipe, which should run underground to the 
center of the table pit, would be taken through a pivoted 
slip joint to the ‘‘donkey.’’ 

In this case, owing to the length of pipe, the engine 
would have to run on hot water most of the time. 

The electric motor is just the thing to operate a turn 
table, and it is rapidly coming into general use, 

343 


344 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 





Turn Table with Donkey. 


Pg L OD. 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 345 


Where a terminal has been electrified, the electric turn 
table goes without saying, but it will pay any road to 
install an electric turn table even if they must buy power 
from the local electric light company. 

The same dynamos which furnish 125 or 250 volts 
for hghting the station, or shops can operate the turn 
table motor. 

The regular equipment would be a small railroad mo- 
tor, with the ordinary gearing, a rheostatic controller and 
a circuit breaker, the whole being mounted on a single 
wheeled truck. This constitutes an electrical ‘‘donkey.’’ 
Such a turn table is shown in Fig. 195. 

Where a large number of engines must be handled 
quickly, a regular turn table operator should be em- 
ployed, and a cab built over the ‘‘donkey’’ for his pro- 
tection. 

There are many cases, however, where it is feasible for 
the locomotive fireman to operate the turn table. In 
such a case the controller should be installed in the mid- 
dle of the table at one side, and the cab is not essen- 
tial. 

The details of the ‘‘donkey’’ are well shown in Fig. 
196, while Figs. 197, 198 and 199 give all the informa- 
tion of the equipment that would be required. Note that 
the rails can be sanded in both directions. 

The cost of a turn table ‘‘donkey’’ as in Fig. 195 is 
about $1,000. 


Mi clemnvileolis thick @ eric. cs 2 ee ces eee $2 300% 
Hlectricalmequipment. =. 20. ..2 .o.. «5 ae 500 
LENSER? Geka a Re Mee eae Pees ne 150 





346 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 





Under Part of Donkey. 


Os 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 347 


This is based on the assumption that the railroad shall 
buy the truck from a truck builder, have the mechani- 
eal work done in their own shops, and let the electricians 
install the electrical equipment when received from the 
manufacturers. 

















Fig. 197. Side View of Donkey and Plan of Interior of Cab. 


The turn table shown in Fig. 200 is of the ‘‘draw 
bridge’’ type. The table rests on a heavy cradle which 
turns on a train of small wheels. 

A large stationary gear as shown, is engaged by the 
pinion of the vertical motor shaft. 

It should be noted that a ‘‘donkey”’ drives by friction 
like a locomotive, so that ice on rails, or oil will reduce 


348 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


mettre se 


Lit 
fl 





End View of 
Under Part of Donkey, 


Gear Wheel of Motor on 


Fig. 199. 


Right, Single Drive 
Wheel in Center, 


Plan of Under Part of. Donkey. 


igs 195. 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 349 


traction and make sand necessary. The ‘‘draw bridge’’ 
type drives positively by a gear. 

Whatever type is used, the ordinary street railway 
motor is best adapted to the purpose. It is completely 
enclosed and water and dust proof. 

The conditions of frequent starting, and large momen- 
tary overloads, make the direct current series motor the 
best. If only alternating current is obtainable the com- 
pensated series motor will give good service. If only 
multiphase alternating current can be obtained, an in- 
duction motor will do the work better than hand or steam. 
The induction motor should be of the definite wound 
armature, collector ring, external resistance type, and be 
designed for speed variation. 

In any case the motor must be designed, and con- 
structed to stand rough use and even positive abuse. 

The motor is usually provided with feet, and in place 
of the car axle, an intermediate shaft is substituted so 
that there is a double reduction gearing. Both sets of 
gears run in a gear ease filled with oil or soft grease. 

The armature shaft of motor is extended at the end 
opposite the pinion, and a hand brake fitted. Sometimes 
this is set by a wheel and sometimes by a weight or a 
spring and is released by a foot lever. 

The controller is like a street car controller, except 
that it has no separate reverse wrench. 

The handle being in center, power is off; moving it to 
right turns table to right, to the left turns table to left. 

The resistances are like those on a street car. 

The circuit breaker serves as a switch, and protects 
from serious overloads. 

The advantages of electrically operated tables are: 
Low cost of maintenance and operation; speeds up, 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


‘OICe.L UInT, Jo odAL 98pl1g MeIqg 


008 “SIA 





THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 351 


moves and stops quickly; perfect control of speed; con- 
Sumes power only when work is done. 

Perhaps time saving is its greatest advantage. In a 
certain terminal the new round house was built to ac- 
commodate twice as many locomotives as the old one. 
The electrical turn table served this round house with 
less delays than the hand table caused when serving the 
old house. 

The actual power required to turn a 60-foot table with 
a 100-ton engine on, is from 8 to 12 H. P. The speed 
of operation was one turn in 40 seconds. At the mo- 
ment of starting the power ran up to about 20 H. P. 

It is for this reason that a 20 H. P. railway motor is 
installed. 


A 10 H. P. motor of regular type would operate the 
table, but not as well. The reason is not because the 20 
H. P. railway motor is more powerful than a 10 H. P. 
regular motor, for strange to say they are of about equal 
power. 

The railway motor is best suited to the work, and 
should be installed. 

No time should be wasted in trying to balance engines 
on the table; in fact, the 8 H. P. result was obtained 
with engine slightly out of balance; 9 H. P. was, when 
engine was balanced, and 12 H. P. when much out of 
balance. 


In one yard where the electric table turned 30 
locomotives a day, the cost of the power used was less 
than the cost of hauling the coal to the steam donkey 
previously employed. It would have been utterly foolish 
to waste time in balancing engines to try to save a lit- 
tle power. 

In this yard the actual cost of turning a locomotive 


3154 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


by electric power from their own shop, was 1.4 cents. 
This was obtained by averaging the total expense for 
six months’ use of the table. Had this power been pur- 
chased from the local electric light company, it would 
have cost them 1.9 cents per locomotive. 


There are three good ways of bringing the power into 
the turn table: 

The best way is to lead the wires from underground, 
up to a pair of cast iron rings, and have brushes in the 
table to collect the current. 

When center pivots are solid, and the under bracing 
compheated this cannot be done. 

For a turn table of this description the method shown 
in Fig. 196 is good. 

Two trolley wires, in spans of 6 or 8 feet, are placed 
around the wall of the pit, supported by trolley hang- 
ers of the ‘‘toggle’’ type, ordinarily used in electric mine 
haulage. Short trolley poles are flexibly attached to the 
‘‘donkey,’’ so as to allow a horizontal movement on ac- 
count of the variation in the trolley wires, and a vertical 
movement to accommodate the tilting of the table. This 
scheme is simple and inexpensive, and in practice has op- 
erated in a very satisfactory manner. 

In some places, on account of the possibility of the pit 
being flooded, neither of the arrangements described 
above is practicable, and it becomes necessary to collect 
the current from above the turn table. A very ingenious 
arrangement for this purpose has been used on a turn 
table where the pit occasionally fills with sea water. A 
light arch was built over the center of table to support 
directly over pivoted point the device shown in Fig. 201. 
The case is a piece of 8-inch steam pipe with a regular 


THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE B00 


cap fitting screwed on each end. A bearing is set in at 
the top and a stuffing box at the bottom. 
The case is held stationary by wire rope guys attached 













OURS 


mt 
SS 


Fr 


ny 


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4 
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SAAS NTA 25 
SSS y 


aS 
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ie 


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UR RTA EO 5 


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Fig. 201. Overhead Contact for Turn Table. 


to regular trolley road insulators, and the two electric 
wires enter the case and end in copper brushes insulated 
by a hard wood shell. 


354 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


A piece of 1-inch gas pipe turned smooth on the out- 
side, at one end is fastened to the table: Its upper end 
revolves in the bearing of the case, and takes most of the 
weight of it. The guys merely steady it, and prevent ro- 
tation. The gas pipe revolves in the oil tight stuffing 
box at bottom of case. A hard wood spool on the gas 
pipe carries two copper rings which collect current, and 
from which the two wires run down inside the pipe to 
the turn table. . 

The case is filled with oil which serves a triple pur- 
pose; it lubricates, insulates, and prevents the gases and 
steam from the locomotive from ruining contacts and in- 
sulation. | 


OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES. 


CATECHISM. 


In order to be able to designate the position of the 
different pieces of apparatus in the cab the ends are 
ealled Nos. 1 and 2, while the sides are named right and 
left. 

The hand brake wheel and the storage batteries are in 
the No. 1 end and on the right hand side. The other end 
is the No. 2 and the other side is ealled left side. 

If you stand at the controller in No. 1 end, the side 
of locomotive on your right is the right side. 

The motor in No. 1 end of locomotive is motor No. 1 
and the others are numbered Nos. 2, 3 and 4. 

All the apparatus for No. 1 truck is on the left side of 
locomotive, and the apparatus for No. 2 truck is on right 
side of locomotive. 

The reverse lever can be removed from controller in the 
‘‘off’’ position. In forward and reverse positions it is 
locked in. 

The controller plug is attached to the lever with a 
chain. 

Until the controller plug is in place and the reverse 
lever in forward or reverse position no current can flow 
through the controller contacts. 

The controller lever is part of the controller and not 


removable. 
B00 


356 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


STANDING IN A. C. ZONE. 


Question 1. In what position should the apparatus 
be placed when locomotive is lying idle in an A. C. termi- 
nal or standing in A. C. zone not coupled to a train? 

Answer. The apparatus should be arranged thus: 
Both A. C. trolleys locked down. 

Both A. C. circuit breakers open. 

Both compressor switches open. 

Both blower switches open. 

Controller lever in off notch. 

Reverse lever and controller plug removed. 

Both battery switches open. 

Motor-generator knife and snap switches open. 

Third rail shoes up. 

D. C. main switch handle in down position. 

Heater circuit switches (double throw) in down 
position. 

12. Train line heater switch open. 

Question 2. What is the reason for this arrangement 
of apparatus? 

Answer. So that all communication with outside 
power is cut off, and all apparatus left in the safest pos- 
sible condition. 

Question 3. If locomotive is blocked on road, kept 
standing under orders, or is standing coupled to a train, 
how should apparatus be arranged? 

Answer. For first 80 minutes leave apparatus in nor- 
mal running positions. 

Then read temperature meter. Should it read below 
50 degrees: 

1. Shut off fan motors. 

2. Open both battery switches. 


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OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES oot 


3. Open both motor-generator switches. 

4. Open both A. C. cireuit breakers. 

Should temperature be above 50 degrees wait until it 
falls to 50 degrees and then proceed as above. 


STANDING IN D. C. ZONE. 


Question 4. What should be the position of apparatus 
when locomotive is lying idle in a D. C. terminal or 
standing in a D. C. zone not coupled to a train? 

Answer. The apparatus should be arranged thus: 
Both A. C. trolleys locked down. 

Both A. C. circuit breakers open. 

Both air compressor switches open. 

Both blower switches open. 

Controller lever in off notch. 

Reverse lever and controller plug removed. 
Both battery switches open. 

Both motor-generator switches open. 

Third rail shoes down. 

10. D.C. main switch down. 

11. Heater circuit switches (double throw) down. 


Soot 28) Ben OE IR aed Ses SF erm 


12. Train line heater switch open. 

Question 5. What positions should apparatus occupy 
when blocked, held under orders, or standing coupled to 
a train in a D. C. zone? 

Answer. Leave everything in normal running position 
until.30 minutes elapse. Then watch temperature meter. 
When it falls below 50°: 

1. Shut off fan motors. 

2. Open battery switches. 


358 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


PREPARATION FOR RUN. 


Question 6. What should be done in preparing for a 
run? 

Answer. Prepare for a run thus: 

1. Both batteries should be tested by using the 20- 
volt lamp provided for this purpose. Lamp should burn 
at full brilliancy. 

2. Inspect the A. C. trolley locks to see that MeN 
operate properly. 

3. Raise and lower the D. C. trolley. 

4. Lower the third rail shoes. If in D. C. zone they 
should stay down, while in A. C. zone they should auto- 
matically return to the up position. 

5. Before the first run each day, fill central groove of 
each A. C. trolley with heavy grease. 

6. See that sand boxes are filled. 

7. Test bell, sander, and lighting circuits. 

8. Test out the control (as described later). 

Question 7. Should A. C. trolleys be used alternately ? 

Answer. Yes. Change trolleys each day. Under no 
circumstances use one trolley continuously. At end of 
each day’s run cut out the trolley used that day and 
cut in other trolley ready for next day’s run. 

Question 8. How is the trolley cut out? 

Answer. After locking down, the lock is cut out by 
closing the air cock on the trolley side of the magnet 
valve leading to the unlocking cylinder of this trolley. 

Question 9. What should be done in making ready to 
start? 

Answer. In A. C. zone: 

1. See that both A. C. circuit breakers are open. 

2. See that safety chains are not fastened to trolleys. 


OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES 399 


3. Raise the A. C. trolley, whose lock is not cut out, 
by pushing down the controller button marked ‘‘Shoe and 
Trolley Unlock,’’ or this failing, by methods described 
later. 

4. Close both A. C. cireuit breakers. 

5. Start air compressors and pump up 140 pounds 
pressure in reservoir. Compressor should automatically 
eut off at that pressure. 

6. Throw battery switches up on the even days of the 
month and down on the odd days. 

7. Start motor-generator by closing the snap switch 
first, and then the knife switch. 

8. Insert the controller plug and reverse lever. 

9. Start fan motors. Fans must be kept in constant 
operation while the locomotive is running. 

In D.C. zone: 

1. Start air compressors and see that 140 pounds 
pressure is attained in reservoir, and that compressors 
automatically cut off at that pressure. 

2. Throw battery switches up on the even days of the 
month, and down on the odd days. 

3. See that motor-generator switches are open. 

4. Insert controller plug and reverse lever. 

5. Start fan motors. Fan motors must be kept in 
constant operation while the locomotive is running. 


AT END OF RUN. 


Question 10. What must be done at end of a run? 

Answer. The apparatus must be arranged in the same 
positions as for standing in a zone. 

The reverse lever and controller plug must be handed 
to proper official. 


360 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES. 


Question 11. How should a train be handled while 
leaving a terminal? 

Answer. In leaving a terminal, in passing over 
switches, cross-overs or turn-tables, in coupling up to 
trains, and at other places where a slow speed is required, 
the controller lever should be placed in one of the switch- 
ing positions. 

Question 12. Should lever be kept in a switching posi- 
tion ? 

Answer. No. The A. C. switching position is wasteful 
of power, and must not be used as a running position. 
Use no longer than is absolutely necessary. 

The D. C. switching position is not only wasteful, but 
operation of the locomotive with lever in this position 
for too long may result in burning out a resistance grid. 

Question 13. How should a low speed be maintained 
in D. C. zone? 

Answer. By bringing lever to D. C. Series; retain 
lever in this position for a short time, shut off and coast. 

In this way a very low average speed may be main- 
tained. 

Question 14. What is the off position of controller 
lever ? 

Answer. The first three notches on the controller are 
not numbered. When lever is in first of these it is in off 
position and all unit switches are open. 

Question 15. What are the running positions of con- 
troller lever in A. C. zone? 

Answer. The notches 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 are the 
A. C. running positions. 

Question 16, What isthe A. C. switching position ? 


OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES 361 


Answer. Notch 3 is the A. C. switching position. 

Question 17. What are the running positions of lever 
in D. C. zone? 

Answer. Notches 10, 11, 12 and 20 are D. C. running 
positions. 

Question 18. What is the D. C. switching position? 

Answer. Notch 1 is the D. C. switching position. 

Question 19. What are notches 2, 4, 5, 18, 14, 15, 16, 
17, 18, 19 which have not been mentioned ? 

Answer. These are notches where changes in the con- 
nections of the circuits are made, but where the combina- 
tions are not suitable, or are unsafe for continuous use. 

Question 20. Should controller lever be held on one 
of these notches? 

Answer. No. These notches should be passed over 
quickly. 

Question 21. In giving the A. C. positions of control- 
ler lever, notches 1, 2, 4, 5 and 12 to 20 inclusive were 
not mentioned. Why? 

Answer. When operating in A. C. zone the notches 
from Off to 2 inclusive, and from 12 to 20 inclusive are 
dead. 

The controller lever at any one of these notches makes 
no electrical connections. 

Notches 4 and 5 give such a low voltage to the motors 
that they waste power, and so are not used. 

Question 22. When giving D. C. positions of con- 
troller lever notches 2, 4, 5 and 13 to 19 inclusive were 
not spoken of. Why? 

Answer. Because these notches are positions where 
connections are made which are unsuitable, or unsafe for 


continuous use. 
Question 23. How is train operated in A, C. zone? 


502 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Answer. To start train, controller lever should be 
drawn from Off to A. C. No. 1 with a single motion. The 
lever may then be drawn to A. C. Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 
(in the same manner), as fast as is required to obtain 
the desired acceleration. 

Question 24. What precautions must be taken to pre- 
vent too much power being used? 

Answer. While the locomotive is accelerating the am- 
meter should be watched carefully. A current of 1,600 
amperes should be maintained as nearly as possible. More 
than 1,800 amperes must not be drawn. 

Question 25. Suppose the controller lever is pulled © 
beyond A. C. No. 6? 

Answer. If the lever is pulled beyond A. C. No. 6 the 
power will be cut off, and locomotive will be coasting. 

Question 26. May controller lever be pushed back to 
A. ©. No. 6? 

Answer. If speed of locomotive has not been reduced 
much, push lever back to A. C. No. 6. 

Should speed be considerably reduced, pull the con- 
troller plug out, push lever back to Off position, replace 
plug, and pull lever to desired running position. 


Question 27. How should train be operated in D. C. 
zone? ; 

Answer. In starting a train with D. C. power the con- 
troller lever should be brought to a notch which will give 
a current of 1,600 amperes on the ammeter. After a 
few seconds’ pause bring lever to D. C. series position. 

Question 28. What precautions must be taken to pre- 
vent too much power being drawn during acceleration 
of train? ; 

Answer. While increasing speed watch the ammeter, 
Never exceed 1,800 amperes. 


OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES 363 


Should 2,500 amperes be drawn, fuses will blow. 

Question 29. What is to be done if ammeter reads 
over 1,800 amperes? 

Answer. Wait until current drops to 1,600 amperes 
before moving controller lever to next position. 

Question 30. How may speed be increased beyond 
D. C. series? 

Answer. The lever should be placed in the D. C. 
shunt No. 1 position, or D. C. shunt No. 2 position. 

If a still higher speed is desired move with a single 
motion to D. C. full multiple. 

To run very slowly alternately coast, and run on D. C. 
series. 

Should endeavor to run on any position result in a 
steady indication of over 1,800 amperes the train is too 
heavy, brakes are not released or trouble has occurred. 
Investigate at once. 


CHANGE FROM A. C. TO D. C. OPERATION. 


Question 31. How is the change-over point from A. 
C. to D. C. marked? 

Answer. There are two sign-posts on the right-of-way. 
The first is marked ‘‘Shoes Down’’ and the second 
marked ‘‘ Power Off.”’ 

Question 32. How is the change-over made? 

Answer. 1. On reaching the sign ‘‘Shoes Down,’’ 
press the controller button marked “‘Shoes Down’’ and 
see that the shoes on both sides go down. 

2. When sign ‘‘Power Off’’ is reached throw con- 
troller lever to Off position. 

3. Open storage battery knife switch, and then motor- 
generator snap switch, 


364 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Question 33. What changes take place in arrangement 
of other apparatus? 

Answer. As soon as the shoes come in contact with 
the third rail the A. C. trolley is automatically lowered ; 
the change over switches cut out A. C. apparatus and cut 
in D. C. apparatus. 

Question 34. How is locomotive operated immediately 
after passing change-over point? 

Answer. When it is seen that D. C. power has entered 
locomotive, and the A. C. trolley is down, pull controller 
lever to the position which gives desired speed. 


CHANGE FROM D. C. TO A. C. OPERATION. 


Question 35. How is change-over point from D. C. 
to A. C. marked? 

Answer. There is a sign-post on the right-of-way 
marked ‘‘ Controller Off.’’ 

Question 36. How is change-over made? 

Answer. 1. Immediately on reaching the sign throw 
controller lever to Off position. 

2. Press the controller button marked ‘‘Shoe and 
Trolley Unlock’’ and hold this button down until the 
shoes leave the third rail. 

3. Close motor-generator snap switch, and then stor- 
age battery knife switch. 

Question 37. What changes occur in arrangement of 
apparatus ? 

Answer. The shoes automatically fold up to the side 
of the locomotive and the A. C. trolley is automatically 
forced up against the trolley wire. 

The change-over switch cuts out D. C. apparatus and 
euts in A. C. apparatus. 


OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES 365 


Question 38. How is locomotive operated immediately 
after passing change-over point? 

Answer. As soon as A. C. power enters locomotive and 
these changes have occurred, pull controller lever to such 
a position as will give the desired speed. 


Question 39. Why is it of the utmost importance to 
throw controller lever to Off at the sign-post in both 
change-overs ? 

Answer. Because if the locomotive is drawing current 
at the moment shoes leave the third rail a vicious are 
will be drawn which will damage the shoes. 

In a lke manner an are would be formed between 
trolley and trolley wire when contact was broken. The 
current being small the arcing is very much less than the 
arcing at the shoes. j 


OPERATION ON D. C. OVERHEAD RAIL. 


Question 40. Where will D. C. overhead rail be en- 
countered ? 

Answer. Inthe D. C. zone at cross-overs and switches 
or any place where there is a gap in the third rail, the 
gap is spanned by an overhead rail. 

Question 41. Is this rail always used? 

Answer. No. An endeavor should be made to coast 
all these gaps. With long gaps, or heavy trains, power 
must be obtained from the overhead rail. 

Question 42. How is power obtained from overhead 
rail? 

Answer. Power is obtained from overhead rail by 
holding down the controller button marked ‘‘D. C. Trol- 
ley Uv’’ as long as it is desired to obtain power. 


366 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Question 43. How should locomotive be operated while 
power is drawn from overhead rail? 

Answer. Should speed of train have been reduced be- 
fore trolley is raised it is best to throw controller to Off 
position and then pull up to desired notch. 

Ordinarily the position of controller lever may remain 
unchanged. 


OPERATION ON A. C. THIRD RAIL. 


Question 44. Where will A. C. third rail be encoun- 
tered? 

Answer. All long draw bridges are equipped with A. 
C. third rail. 

Question 45. Is this rail to be used in normal opera- 
tion ? 

Answer. No. The draws are to be coasted with the 
A. C. trolley down. 

Question 46. Describe method of coasting a draw 
bridge. 

Answer. When approaching the draw watch for the 
end of the overhead trolley wire. Just before the end 
of trolley wire, throw controller lever to Off position, 
and press on controller button marked ‘‘A. C. Trolley 
e Downs 

After draw has been passed, press down button marked 
‘*Shoes and Trolley Unlock.’’ 

The A. C. trolley will rise into contact with trolley 
wire, and controller lever may be pulled to desired po- 
sition. 

Question 47. What is proper procedure if stalled on 
a draw bridge? | 

Answer. 1. See that the double throw heater switches 
are both in the up position, 


OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES 367 


2. Throw the D. C. main switch to the upper position. 

3. Lower third rail shoes by pressing the controller 
button marked ‘‘Shoes Down.”’’ 

4. Signal tower operator to cut current into the third 
rail. 

5. Start the train very slowly, and run at slow speed, 
as drawing a heavy current is quite lkely to damage 
apparatus. 

6. Throw controller lever to Off just before reaching 
end of third rail. 

7. Throw D. C. main switch to the down position. 

8. Raise trolley by pressing controller button marked 
‘‘Shoes and Trolley Unlock,’’ which will also fold up 
shoes. 


DOUBLE HEADING. 


Question 48. How should locomotives be arranged for 
double heading? 


Answer. 1. Make the three jumper connections be- 
tween locomotives. 

2. Test control of each locomotive. Hach must be 
perfect. 

3. Remove the controller plug and the reverse lever 
from all controllers, except the one from which train is 
to be operated. 

4. Raise one trolley on each locomotive. 

Question 49. Is there any difference in handling 
double headed trains? 

Answer. No. Except that in case of trouble pull 
jumpers between locomotives before investigating. 


368 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


RAISING A. C. TROLLEY. 


Question 50. How is A. C. trolley raised in normal 
operation ? 

Answer. Under normal conditions the A. C. trolley 
may be raised by pressing controller button marked 
‘“Shoes and Trolley Unlock’’ which causes air from main 
reservoirs at 130 pounds pressure to operate the unlock- 
ing cylinders. 

Question 51. Suppose after standing for some time 
the pressure has leaked off from these reservoirs? 

Answer. If there is sufficient pressure in the emer- 
gency control reservoir, (which normally carries 130 
pounds pressure) it may be used to unlock trolleys thus: 

Throw to the right the handle of the three-way cock 
directly above the reservoir. 

After the trolley has unlocked, return handle of three- 
way cock to its normal position. 

Question 52. Suppose emergency control reservoir 
pressure has also leaked off? 


Answer. In this event trolley No. 2 may be unlocked 
by the hand pump. 

To do this: 

Close the cock in the air pipe connecting this trolley 
lock with its magnet valve. 

Open cock connecting trolley lock with pump. 

Three or four strokes of pump should unlock trolley. 

After trolley is up, close connection to pump, and open 
connection to magnet valve. 


Question 53. Should all these fail to raise trolley 
what should be done? 


Answer. The latch of the trolley lock may be pulled 


OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES 369 


by the hook on the end of the wooden pole carried on 
the locomotive for this special purpose. 

Question 54. What precautions should be observed in 
unlatching trolley ? 

Answer. Never go on top of the locomotive to wnlatch 
trolley, as it can be done from the ladder or while stand- 
ing in the side door. 

Keep pole dry when not in use, and in wet weather 
use rubber gloves. 


RAISING D. C. TROLLEY. 


Question 55. How is D. C. trolley raised? 

Answer. The D. C. trolley is raised by pressing con- 
troller button marked ‘‘D. C. Trolley Up’’ and holding 
it. As soon as button is released D. C. trolley is lowered. 

There is no hand pump attachment. 


TESTING CONTROL. 


Question 56. How is control tested in A. C. zone in 
daylight ? 7 

Answer. 1. See that there is at least 70 pounds pres- 
sure in the control reservoir. 

2. Open A. C. circuit breakers. 

3. Insert the reverse lever and throw to its forward 
position. 

4. Noteh up the controller to each successive A. C. 
position, and make sure that the proper switches as 
shown in Table A close at each A. C. position. 

5. Return controller handle to the Off position. 

6. Throw reverse lever to backward position. 

7. Repeat test as in 4. 

8. Close A. C. circuit breaker. 


370 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Question 57. How is control tested in A. C. zone at 
night when electric lights are used to illuminate the cab? 


Answer. The test can be made on half the equipment 
while electric lights are in use. 

To test switch groups Nos. 4, 5 and 6, which are on 
right hand side of cab, proceed thus: 

1. See that balancing transformer is completely dis- 
connected, by throwing both the heater circuit switches 
to the down position. 

2. Open both air compressor switches. 

3. Diseonnect No. 1 (right hand) auto-transformer 
from the trolley by opening right hand A. C. circuit 
breaker. 

4. Throw handle of No. 2 motor contro! eut out, ta 
the Out position. 

5. Insert reverse lever and controller plug. Throw 
reverse lever of controller to forward position. 

6. Notch up the controller lever to each successive 
A. C. position and see that the proper switches in switch 
eroups Nos. 4, 5 and 6 close at each A. C. position. 

7. Return the controller lever to the Off position. 

8. Throw reverse lever to the backward position. 

9. Repeat test as in 6. : 

10. Throw reverse lever to central position. 

To test switch groups Nos. 1, 2 and 3 on the left hand 
side of locomotive proceed thus: 

11. Throw the handle of the No. 1 motor eontrol cut 
out, (on right hand side) to the Out position. 

12. Reset the right hand hand A. C. circuit breaker. 

13. Open the left hand A. C. circuit breaker. 

14. Throw the handle of the No. 2 motor eontrol cut 
out, (on left hand side) to the In position. 

15. Throw reverse lever to forward position. 


OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES | 371 


16. Test as in 5, the switches in switch groups Nos. 
1, 2 and 3. 

17. Return controller lever to the Off position. 

18. Throw reverse lever to backward position. 

19. Repeat test as in 16. 

20. Reset the left hand A. C. circuit breaker. 

21. Throw handle of left hand motor control, cut out 
(No. 1) to In position. 

Testing in this manner leaves the lighting circuits con- 
nected to trolley throughout the whole test. 

Question 58. How is control tested in D. C. zone? 

Answer. 1. Open D. C. main switch. 

2. Insert reverse lever and controller plug. Throw 
reverse lever to forward position. 

3. Bring controller lever to each notch in succession, 
and note whether the proper switches close at each notch. 

Test every notch from D. C. Switching. to D. C. Full 
Multiple. 

4. Return controller lever to Off position. 

5. Throw reverse lever to backward position. 

6. Repeat test as in 4. 

7. Close D. C. main switch. 

Question 59. Do not the lights in the cab affect the 
test in a D. C. zone? 

Answer. No. Opening D. C. main switch does net cut 
eurrent off from lghting circuits; in fact it does not 
eut current off from lighting, heating, compressor or fan 
circuits. 


TRAIN FAILURES. 
FIRE. 


Question 60. What is to be done in case of smoke or 
fire? 


372 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Answer. If an irregularity of operation exists, such 
as a short circuit, arcing, blowing of a fuse, smoke or 
fire, etc., immediately throw the controller to the Off 
position. 

If in A. C. zone press the controller button marked 
‘SA. C. Trolley Down.”’ 

If in D. C. zone, insert paddles between third rail and 
all shoes. 

Then investigate. 

Question 61. How should a fire be extinguished? 

Answer. By use of sand, or if fire is severe use the 
fire extinguishers provided in the cab of locomotive. 

Question 62. Why should water never be used? 

Answer. Water is a conductor of electricity. Should 
there be any current passing, the fire will be made worse 
by water. Even should there be no current passing wet- 
ting the apparatus will make it impossible to use them 
after fire is extinguished until taken apart and baked dry. 


STARTING TRAINS. 


Question 63. What current should be sufficient for 
starting trains? 

Answer. <A current of 1,800 amperes should be suffi- 
cient to start a train. 

Question 64. If a train does not start readily at 1,800 
amperes current what should be done? 

Answer. Throw controller lever at once to Off posi- 
‘tion. Make sure that all brakes are properly released. 

Question 65. If 1,800 amperes will not start train 
with brakes released what should be done? 

Answer. The train is too heavy for one locomotive 
and should be double headed. 


OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES 373 


Question 66. .Why should controller lever be so 
quickly thrown to Off position if train does not start? 

Answer. Motors must not stand still an instant with 
current in them, else they will be burnt out. 

Question 67. Why will current in an idle motor burn 
it out? j 

Answer. The transformer action of the A. C. current 
causes part of the armature to become a short circuited 
transformer with the result of a burn out. 


TRANSFORMERS. 


Question 68. What should be done when a trans- 
former fails? 

Answer. In ease of trouble with a transformer, cut 
it out by opening the circuit breaker which feeds current 
to that transformer. 

Disconnect the balancing transformer from the dis- 
abled transformer by throwing the double throw switch 
to the down position. Open the compressor motor switch 
belonging to the disabled transformer. 


A. C. CIRCUIT BREAKERS. 


Question 69. What current will make the A. C. cir- 
cuit breakers go out? 

Answer. A current of 1,800 amperes or over will 
cause one or both of the circuit breakers to go ous. 

Question 70. How are the A. C. circuit breakers re- 
set ? 

Answer. The controller lever must always be in the 
Off position when a circuit breaker is to be reset. 


374. ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


To reset breaker: Press the button in the handle to 
unlock it, throw handle to its upper position where it 
will engage the operating lever, pull down and the circuit 
breaker will be reset. 

Question 71. If circuit breakers go out repeatedly 
with less than 1,800 amperes what should be done ? 

Answer. The adjusting screw on the overload trip 
should be screwed down to a point where the circuit 
breaker will carry between 1,800 and 1,850 without op- 
erating the trip and causing circuit breaker to go out. 

Question 72. Should adjustment of trip not stop the 
going out of circuit breaker, what should be done? 

Answer. If the circuit breaker goes out repeatedly 
without apparent cause and adjustment of trip does not 
stop it, throw the motor control cut-out on the same side 
as the circuit breaker to the Out position. 

This will cut out defective circuit breaker and also a 
pair of motors. 


A. ©. TROLLEY. 


Question 73. What is to be done when there is any 
mechanical difficulty with A. C. trolley ? 

Answer. In case of trouble with a trolley, lower it by 
pressing controller button marked “‘A. C. Trolley 
Down.”’ 

Lock it down by closing the air cock on the trolley side 
of the magnet valve leading to the unlocking eylinder cf 
this trolley. 

Question 74. What is to be done if locking mechanism 
has been damaged ? 

Answer. ‘The trolley should be tied down with a rope. 

Question 75. Why not use the safety chains for fas- 
tening the trolley down? 


OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES hs. 


Answer. The safety chains should never be used to tie 
down a damaged trolley, as these chains are grounded 
and will cause a short circuit. 

Question 76. What is to be done if cable between 
two trolleys gives trouble? 

Answer. Loosen set screws of the sockets in which this 
eable rests, and draw cable away from each trolley. 

Use both trolleys to operate locomotive. 

Question 77. Why is it that with trolley cable cut out 
both trolleys must be used? 

Answer. Lach trolley supplies current to one pair of 
motors. It is the trolley cable which enables one trolley 
to serve both pairs of motors. 

Question 78. Suppose there is trouble in cable from 
trolley to circuit breaker ? 

Answer. When trouble develops in circuit breaker 
cable, disconnect it. This cuts out one pair of motors. 

Question 79. What precautions are to be taken in dis- 
connecting trolley cable? 

Answer. Never go on top of the locomotive when any 
trolley is in contact with any wire. 

When both trolleys are lowered and locked by closing 
air cocks, go on top and at once snap safety chains on 
both trolleys. 

Closing the air cock prevents the raising of the trolleys 
by pressing controller button. 

The safety chains prevent the trolleys being raised, 
even if the air cocks should be opened by some one and 
then controller button pressed. 

The last thing before leaving top of locomotive unsnap 
both safety chains. 

Should one trolley be raised while the safety chain 
was attached to the other, it would cause a short circuit 


376 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


bad enough to open the line circuit breakers. This would 
eut power off line and delay other trains. 


UNIT SWITCH GROUPS. 


Question 80. To what causes can the failure of a 
switch group be traced? 

Answer. Usually it is one of these three things; to be 
investigated in order named. 

1. Low air pressure. 

2. Low battery voltage. 

3. Imperfect contacts in the control circuits. 

Question 81. How should low air pressure be investi- 
gated and remedied ? 

Answer. Look at the control line pressure gauge and 
if it registers less than 70 pounds, while there is the nor- 
mal pressure of 130 pounds in the main reservoir, look 
for trouble in the three-way cock or reducing valve. 

Any slight obstruction in the three-way cock can usu- 
ally be removed by throwing the handle from one ex- 
treme position to the other several times, and then re- 
turning it to its normal central position. 

Any slight obstruction in the reducing valve, or its 
failure to work for any minor cause can be remedied by 
tapping it sharply several times with a hammer. 

Question 82. How should low battery voltage be in- 
vestigated and remedied? 

Answer. Should movement of controller lever fail to 
operate the unit switches, throw both battery switches to 
the other position, thus cutting in a fresh battery. 

Should this not cause switches to operate it may be 
that batteries are at correct voltage, and trouble is else- 
where, 


OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES Sh 


Test both batteries with the 20-volt lamp; should it 
burn brightly, the batteries are all right, and fault is 
elsewhere. 

Question 83. How should imperfect contacts be in- 
vestigated and remedied ? 

Answer. If a movement of the controller lever to any 
running position results in the coneing in of a portion of 
the unit switches and a failure for the rest, the trouble 
is probably due to imperfect contacts of some of the 
fingers of the motor-control cutouts, change-over switches, 
or controllers. 

To get train running as quickly as possible cut out the 
side of the locomotive in which the failure occurs and 
operate train with one pair of motors. 

Should trouble affect both sides of locomotive proceed 
thus: 

Arrange locomotive circuits as described for testing 
control, and notch up controller until point of failure 1s 
reached. 

Open cases of the motor control cutouts, change-over 
switches and controllers. 

Run a piece of wood along the control fingers and the 
interlocks pressing them into good contact. The response 
of the unit switches shows circuits to be perfect and lo- 
cates the trouble in the contacts. 

An adjustment of contacts can be made by bending the 
fingers. 

Should trouble be found to be located in wiring on 
both sides of locomotive, call for assistance immediately. 


THIRD RAIL SHOES. 


Question 84. What should be done with a broken third 
rail shoe or shoe support? 


378 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Answer. With a broken third rail shoe or support: 

1. Open D. C. main switch. 

2. Open compressor switches. 

3. Open blower switches. 

4. Open train lne heater switch. (The single pole 
single throw switch. ) 

5. Insert wooden paddles between the third rail and 
all shoes. 

6. Break off or tie up the remainder of shoe or sup- 
port, whichever will cause least delay. 

Q@uestion 85. What precautions are to be observed 
when breaking off shoes, ete. 

Answer. In breaking off shoes use a tool with a wood- 
en handle such as a hammer or a sledge. 

Never use a crow bar or coupler pin about an electric 
locomotive. 

Never enter D. C. zone without at least one good shoe 
on each side of each truck. 


CHANGE-OVER SWITCHES. 


Question 86. How should trouble in change-over 
switches be investigated and remedied? 

Answer. Failure may be due to low air pressure. See 
that at least 70 pounds pressure is in control reservoir, if 
not pump it up to normal 80 pounds pressure. 

If this fails to operate change-over switch look for 
trouble in relay box. 

Open relay box and see that the relays are in their 
proper positions: 

In A. C. zone, both A. C. relays should be up and D. C. 
relay down. 

In D. C. zone, both A. C. relays should be down and 
D. C. relay up. 


OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES 379 


If relays are not in their correct positions, do not 
attempt to repair them, but throw the change-over switch 
by hand. Report the trouble at terminal. 

The handle of change-over switch should be down in A. 
C. zone and up in D. C. zone. 


CONTROLLERS. 


Question 87. How should trouble in controllers be in- 
vestigated and remedied? 

Answer. When poor contacts are made by controller 
fingers it can readily be detected and remedied. 

If anything more serious seems to be the trouble, waste 
no time in investigation, cut out the defective controller. 
Take reverse lever and controller plug to other controller 
and operate train from it. 


BRAKES. 


Question 88. How should train be handled when air 
brakes fail? 

Answer. The motors may be used as brakes as an ex- 
treme measure to prevent accident, ordinarily hand 
brakes are to be used. 

Question 89. How are motors used as brakes? 

Answer. 1. Throw controller lever to ‘‘ Off.’ 

2. Throw reverse lever to opposite position. 

3. Notch up controller very slowly watching ammeter 
so as not to exceed 1,800 amperes. As soon as current 
falls, pull up a notch and wait until current drops below 
1,800 before pulling up another notch. 

Question 90.' Can a train be stopped in this way when 
power is off the line? 


380 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Answer. Yes. If running on A. C. pull controller 
lever to any of A. C. positions at.once. If in D. C. zone 
pull controller lever at once to a notch beyond D. C. shunt 
No. 2 and then slowly notch up to Full Multiple. 


CUTTING OUT MOTORS. 


Question 91. How is apparatus arranged in A. C. zone 
so as to operate with one pair of motors? 

Answer. When running on A. C. to cut out one pair 
of motors: 

1. Throw motor control cutout of that pair of motors, 
to7 Out teposition: 

2. Open circuit breaker leading to pair of motors to 
be cut out. 

3. Disconnect the balancing transformer on side of 
locomotive to be cut out, by throwing the double throw 
heater switch to the opposite position. 

Operating with only one pair of motors a current of 
2,000 amperes may be drawn but not exceeded. 


Question 92. How is apparatus arranged when in D. 
C. zone so as to cut out a pair of motors? 


Answer. It depends on which pair is cut out. 

To eut out motors Nos. 3 and 4 simply throw the motor 
control cutout of that pair to ‘‘Out’’ position. 

To cut out motors Nos. 1 and 2: 

1. Throw their motor control cut-out to the ‘‘Out’’ 
position. 

2. Open D. C. main switch. (Handle up.) 

3. Raise trap door in floor over No. 1 truck and dis- 
eonnect the two extreme right hand leads at the joints in 
the cables painted white. 


OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES 381 


Tape the ends coming from the cab, to prevent acci- 
dental grounding on the motor frame. 

4. Close D. C. main switch. (Handle down.) 

When operating with one pair of motors on D. C. 
power, locomotive is handled the same as when operating 
with four motors. 

A current of 2,000 amperes may be drawn but not ex- 
ceeded. 

Question 93. Cannot one motor be cut out? 

Answer. No. The motors are permanently connected 
in pairs. To cut out one motor the pair to which it be- 
longs must be cut out. 


FAILURE OF AIR SUPPLY. 


Question 94. What will be the result of a failure of air 
supply ? ; 

Answer. Insufficient air to operate switch groups or 
air brakes. 

Question 95. What is to be done when air supply 
fails? 

Answer. There is enough air in the emergency con- 
trol reservoir to operate the electric apparatus eight or 
ten times. 

Question 96. How should apparatus be arranged to 
use emergency air reservoir? 

Answer. In order to use emergency control reservoir 
it is necessary to throw handle of three-way cock on top 
of the reservoir to the extreme left. 

Under normal conditions this handle must be left in 
central position. 

Question 97. Is there any reserve air for air brakes? 


382 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Answer. No. So much air is required to release 
brakes that no emergency supply ean be carried. 

Question 98.. How is train controlled when air supply 
fails? 

Answer. By using the hand brakes or the motors as 
brakes. 


TEMPERATURE OF MOTORS. 


Question 99. At what temperature does operation of 
motors become dangerous ? 

Answer. If a temperature of 80 degrees or over is 
registered on the meters, telephone to terminal foreman 
for instructions before continuing the operation of loco- 
motive. 7 


BLOWERS. 


Question 100. What parts of locomotive are cooled by 
air blast? 

Answer. The four main motors, the two main trans- 
formers and the sets of resistance grids are cooled by air 
blast. 

Question 101. How are the blowers operated? 

Answer. There are two blowers each being a fan con- 
nected to a small motor of the same type as the main 
motors. 

These blower motors are changed over from A. C. to 
D. C. by the change-over switches. 

Question 102. How are blower conduits arranged ? 

Answer. Each blower has a conduit fitted with two 
dampers close to it. In the event of a blower being dis- 
abled and cut out, both these dampers must be closed as 
otherwise the air from the blower in service will escape 


OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES 383 


through the standing blower, without passing through 
the apparatus. 

The conduit from each blower carries air from its own 
blower through one set of motors, transformer and re- 
sistance grids. 

These conduits are so connected that if one blower is 
disabled and its two dampers closed, air from other blow- 
er will pass through both sets of apparatus. 

Question 103. How are the snow screens to be used? 

Answer. ‘To prevent snow being blown into apparatus 
and by melting, wet the transformer and motor snow 
screens are to be shut during snow storms, even if very 
slight. 

To supply air to blowers when snow screens are shut 
open one of the cab doors. 

If storm is too severe to do this open one or two of the 
trap doors in the floor. 


FUSES. 


Question 104. ‘What are the different fuses and where 
are they to be found? 

Answer. The third rail shoe fuses in fuse boxes lo- 
cated above the third rail shoe operating cylinder. 

The lighting compressor and blower fuses, one set for 
each side of the locomotive, located in a box above the 
air compressor on its own side. 

The heater fuse in a box located over the emergency 
control reservoir. 

Question 105. What is the procedure in replacing 
third rail shoe fuses ? 

Answer. 1. Open D. C. main switch. 

2. Open all compressor and blower switches. 


384 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


3. Open train line heater switch. 

4. Insert paddles between all shoes and the third rail. 

dD. Replace fuse. 

6. Keep well away from the fuse box as paddles are 
removed and the apparatus cut in. 

Question 106. How are lighting, compressor, and 
blower fuses replaced in D. C. zone? 

Answer. The hghting, compressor, and blower circuits 
while on D. C. are protected by a fuse, which is the cen- 
tral fuse in the fuse boxes located in cab. 

To replace this fuse: 

1. Open D. C. main switch. 

2. Insert paddles between all shoes and third rail. 

3. Replace fuse. 

4. Remove paddles and reset D. C. main switch. 


Question 107. How are lighting circuit fuses replaced 
on A. C.? 

Answer. The top fuse in each fuse box is on A. C. 
lighting circuit. To replace it: 

1. Open knife switch on ceiling over the relay box. 

2. Open both A. C. circuit breakers. 

3. Replace fuse. 

4. Reset the cireuit breakers, and close knife switch. 


Question 108. How are blower and compressor fuses 
replaced on A. C.? 

Answer. The lower fuse in each fuse box is on A. C. 
blower and compressor fuses. To replace it: 

1. Open both A. C. circuit breakers. 

2. Replace fuse. 

3. Reset circuit breakers. 

Question 109. How is heater circuit fuse replaced? 

Answer. On A. C.: | 

1. Open the three heater knife switches. 





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TABLE A. 


SEQUENCE OF SWITCHES WHEN OPERATING ON DIRECT CURRENT. 











POSITION. Sw. Gr. No.1 No.2 Sw. Gr. No. 3 Sw. Gr. No. 4 No.5 Sw. Gr. No. 6 
























































































TABLE B. 
| | 
D. C. Switching 1142) O21 0° rer fr 5 Ml O47 12% 4ads? oer 16 | JR VOLTAGES GIVEN BY SWITCH GROUPS 2 AND 5, 
2 fe £6 M1 122 | 13 S | 15 IR 
ae Cel ae le Peers ae: F 
12 | 18 15 RR1 IR ? P E 
ad we £6 M1 R1| R2 2 | 13 8 | 5 RR1 oR Switches I and I’ are corresponding switches 
Bel 4 | 5 M1 R1| R2 12 | 13 8 /P16 RR1 | RR2 IR : ; ; 
71 q Yeas M1 R2| RB 2 | 43 s | 45 RR1 | RR2 oR in switch groups 2 and 5. Each gives same 
8 a 4 5 M1 R2/ R38 12 13 Ss 15 | RR2 RR3 JR A ° 
9] 1 4 | 5 M1 R3 | R4 12 | 18 s | 15 RR2 | RR3 JR voltage to its own pair of motors. 
D. c. Series 10 | 1 re a Ml R3 | R4 12 | 18 S | 35 RES | RR | JR 
| @. Shunt No. 1 1 415 R4 12} 218 s | 15 | 18 RR3 | RR4 | JR Sean 
D.C. ShuntNo.4 12] 1 4/5]8]9] M1 R4 2 | 2B Ss | 15 | 18] 19 RR3 | RR4 | JR eae VOLTAGE, 
13] 1 4/5 {/[8]9] M1 R4] J 12 | 13 S | 15 | 18} 19 RR3 | RR4 | JR 
14] 1 4|518|9| M1 J 12 | 13 S | 15 | 18] 19 I 239 
15 | 1 4/5 ]8|9] M1 jq@ J 12 | 13 S | 15 | 18]19] M2 
16 | 1 4 |5]8{9] M1 /@1 12 | 13 Ss | 15 | 18}19| M2 Il 291 
sid ae 2S M1 | G1| Ri 122 | 13 s | 15 M2| RR1 
18 | 1 rigs Oe M1 | G1| Ri| R2 12 | 13 S | 15 M2|RR1 | RR2 
19 | 1 Deep M1 | G1 R2| R38 1255\ 18 S >| 15 M2 RR2 | RR3 III 345 
D.C. Full Multiple 20 | 1 4/5 M1 | G1 R3| R4 12 | 13 s | 15 M2 RR3 | RR4 
IV 397 
NotTe:—O—Switches 2, 3 11 and 14 used when moving in reverse direction. 
V 450 
SEQUENCE OF SWITCHES WHEN OPERATING ON ALTERNATING CURRENT. VI 495 
. POSITION. Sw. Gr. No. 1 Sw. Gr. No. 2 Sw. Gr. No. 4 Sw. Gr. No.5 VII 548 
VIII 584 
Pel TO: 20174 +b G2: 12 69 | "7 OP Is ISO 16a) 17 
Sele 41q@2}6\7 12 18 16 uy, cx 636 
4}q@2|/6\7/1 17 
A. C. Switching. $ | 1 Rape | Bout | Le aia Vag a 
ye Oe 4}q@2|6]7)1]1\1 12 | 13 16 | 17 | I/ | 11” |111’ 
A.C. No.1 6] 1 4|G2|6|7]1|m|1m| IV 12 | 13 16 | 17 | I | 11” \ILl’|1v/ 
A. CO. No.2 fp pel 4|@216|7 I | 11| Iv} Vv 12 | 13 16 | 17 II’ |111/|IVv’| v/ 
A. GC. No.3 S044 4|G216|7 1 | IV | Vv | VI 12 | 13 16 | 17 IV |tv/| v7 | vi’ 
A. O. No.4 9 |1 4|@2|6|7 IV |v | VI] VII 12 | 13 16 | 17 Iv/| V/ | VI’ | vir’ 
A.G.No.5 10] 1 4|q@2/6|7 v | vi| vit] vit 12 | 13 16 | 17 V/ | VI | Vir’ |vitr’ 
A.©.No.6 11] 1 4|G@2|6|7 VI| Vil | VIII | 1x 12 | 13 16 | 17] | vV’ | vil’ lyin’! 1x’ 
©. No. | 









































OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES 385 


2. Replace fuse. 

3. Close the switches. 

On D. C.: 

1. Open train line heater switch. 

2. Insert paddles between all shoes and third rail. 
3. Replace fuse. 

4. Remove paddles and close heater switch. 


SANDERS. 


Question 110. How should an air leakage through the 
sanding valves be remedied ? | 

Answer. ‘The sander should be cut off by closing shut- 
off cock provided for that purpose. 

If this is not done the pressure in main reservoir may 
be lost. 

Question 111. What are the most important things to 
remember in these rules? 

Answer. Never allow current to flow in a motor which 
is standing still. 

Never use water on a fire. 

Never use a crow bar or a coupler pin around the loco- 
motive. 

Never go on top of locomotive while a trolley is in con- 
tact with any wire. 


INDIANA UNION TRACTION COMPANY’S ELEC- 
TRIC LOCOMOTIVE. 


Fig. 202 shows a type of electric locomotive recently 
put in service on the lines of the Indiana Union Trac- 
tion Company, Anderson, Indiana. The locomotive is 
the steeple cab, sloping end type and has the following 
general dimensions: 


Total weight onsdrivers: he ee 100,000 Ibs. 
Extreme length (over steps).......... apne 
Extreme length over couplers......... Don Om 
Extreme length over bumpers......... OL 
Extreme wWidtheis osha t. cee eee pon KA 
Extreme height (rail to clearance line) .13’ 5” 
Height of trolley board above rail...... gee f44 
Width of bumpenern teeta nee 1 eOe 
Height to center of couplers........... 35014” 
Truck,.centers: sna de ae eee Oe 


Trucks. The trucks under this locomotive are of the 
Baldwin Master Car Builders equalizing bar design. 
The frame is of wrought iron, filled together with steel 
channel transoms at the center and steel angle bars at 
the ends. The transom channels and angle bars are 
fitted together at the junction to the frames with steel 
gusset plates. The pedestals are made of wrought iron 
carefully machined to fit the truck frames, and _ also 
machined between pedestal jaws to fit the journal 
boxes. The whole structure of these trucks is fitted 

386 


387 


ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 


boners rae 





388 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


together by machine turned bolts driven into holes 
reamed out to receive them. The truck bolsters are 
made of wrought iron, the weight on the bolster being 
supported by double elliptic, twelve leave springs. 
These elliptic springs rest on a steel spring plank, hung 
by swinging links from the track transoms. The entire 
truck frame supporting the locomotive rests on four 
eoil springs, transmitting the weight of the locomotive 
to four steel equalizing bars which rest on the journal 
boxes. The journal boxes are of the Master Car Build- 
ers interior design, and have cast on them extensions to 
which a beam may be bolted to carry a collector, should 
it be desirable to use the third rail means of transmitting 
current. 

The brake rigging is of the inside hung type with one 
live lever, and one dead lever on each side of the trucks. 
The motor suspension employed on these trucks is of the | 
‘‘Gibbs’’ type. This consists of a rectangular frame of 
wrought «steel, to which both motors are attached by 
swing bolts on each side of the motors, and spring sup- 
ported bolts at one end of the motor. This type of motor 
suspension has the following advantages: 


a—No part of the motor weight is carried on the truck 
frame. 


b—The motor suspension springs need to be only of 
sufficient strength to carry the weight of the motors, 
hence the motors ride more easily, are subject to less 
jar, and have less hammer blow effect on the track than 
with any other form of motor suspension. 

e—With this form of motor suspension the entire 
truck frame may be removed from the axles without 
disturbing the motors. 


ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 389 


The principal dimensions of the trucks are as follows: 


CUO Geren er. KY esteem ingen sas es 4’ 81,” 
Height of center plate above rail..... en Ss ae 
(WiheelBbasca er mete ee. eey ete roe ate sues Orr nee 
Weight of truck complete without 
TWOCOL Sarees et cee een a 10,000 Ibs. 
Designed to carry..... Beenie se korean es: 25,000 Ibs. 
TRUCK CONSTRUCTION. 
pide: frames ‘wrought: iron... 2.52... PED Be Ah 
Pedostiuemyrouchbeirones eine foe 2x47 
Center eicanisoricemae Wale mene! a. 10” channel 
Trucksbolsters wrought iron. 3.2.25: 9” wide 
Bolstentiriussscteelsplate.ti.. 6. 0... Rl xT1h” 
Generar Lave erecta ene Ah ye ois Cast steel 
Equalizingebars: wrourcht iront. a.) 2. 2. Ge 
Sprinewplank——steel i ea 2 a exe 
SPRINGS. 
Doublerellipticrc! 2 Weaves® 4 fees sco 2S 
Siielemecoileeciamoter yes sete aul ee st TAL” 


WHEELS AND AXLES. 
Wheels east steel spoke center steel tires. . .33” 
Tires held by ‘‘Gibson’’ retaining 


TISSUE sem st at Ne De x3 Te" 
ALES DRCOTILC Ion Wumer er seanMvaieye craic's cite eka ath 616” 
(TeaTmanueaw Necleseat) nea hl. teow 116” 
VOUITIAIS Eee Rt Ceri sira em irs ho as ot ae 41/4,x8” 
POULMAIBDOKCS ue eter wets oy, M. C. B. cast iron 


ELEcTRIC EQUIPMENT. 
Trucks designed for two Westinghouse No. 85 railway 
motors rating 75 H. P. each. 
Motor SUSPENSION. 
‘*Gibbs’’ eradle suspension. 
Motors. The motors on this locomotive are Westing- 


390 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


house No. 85. The frame is made of cast steel, divided 
horizontally in two parts, securely bolted together, and 
forming a field which is wholly ironclad, and approxi- 
mately cylindrical in shape. The design is such that 
when mounted on the truck, the holding bolts may be 
withdrawn and the upper field lifted off. To this end 
the suspension lugs, and projection for the support of 
the gear case are cast with the lower field. 

A large opening with a spring-locked cover is provided 
in the upper casting, which permits access to the com- 
mutator and brushes. Hand-holes are provided in econ- 
venient locations about the motor frame. 

The four pole pieces are built up of soft steel punch- 
ings, riveted together between end plates of wrought 
iron, and are held to the motor frame by bolts. The 
poles project radially inward at angles of 45° with the 
horizontal. Two bolts, secured by lock washers, hold 
each pole piece in place. They do not penetrate the 
pole face, but terminate in heavy rivets inside the pole 
made for this purpose. A smooth and unbroken pole 
face is thus presented to the armature. 

The poles are made with projecting tips, which prop- 
erly distribute the magnetic field, and also serve to retain 
the field coils, which are held firmly in place by spring 
washers. The coils are wound with asbestos-covered 
wire. They are heavily taped, and are treated with spe- 
cially-prepared insulating compounds which render them 
practically moisture proof. The armature core is formed 
of circular punchings of soft steel, built up upon a cast 
iron spider. Ventilating spaces are provided in the core 
at right angles to and parallel with the shaft. There is, 
therefore, a thorough circulation of air through the core, 
and through, and about the coils, insuring an even dis- 














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Fig. 203. Wiring Diagram of Union Traction Co.’s Electric Locomotive No. 679. 


ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 391 


tribution of the heat developed, and its rapid radiation. 
The spider is pressed on and keyed to the shaft. The 
commutator also is mounted on the same spider, and the 
shaft can thus be taken out and renewed should this be 
necessary, Without disturbing any other part. 

The armature is wound with machine-formed coils, 
imbedded in rectangular open slots, and held in place 
by band wires sunk in grooves. It is therefore wholly 
iron-clad, and the winding protected against mechanical 
injury. Canvas caps protect the winding at both ends, 
completely covering the parts of the windings outside 
of the armature core. The end plate at the pinion end 
is provided with a bell-shaped flange, upon which the 
windings rest. This flange also holds the ends of the 
coils rigidly in place. The armature may, therefore, be 
run safely at high speeds. The ends of the coils, and 
the back of the commutator are thoroughly protected 
from carbon and copper dust. The complete armature 
is 1534 inches in diameter. 

Wiper rings of approved design pressed upon the 
shaft outside the armature revolve in spaces in the motor 
frame inside the bearing boxes, and prevent oil working 
its way along the shaft to the commutator or winding. 
Oil thrown off by these rings is drained off through 
suitable openings. 

The commutator consists of 117 hard-drawn copper 
segments with short necks, separated by prepared mica 
sheets, built up upon a cast iron bushing, and clamped 
between two V-shaped surfaces, from which they are 
insulated by similarly-shaped rings of moulded mica. 
The completed commutator measures 12 inches in diam- 
eter by 434 inches in width, and has a wearing depth 
of approximately one inch. It is pressed on, and keyed 
to the armature spider. 


392 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Brush holders of the sliding shunt type are mounted 
on east brass arms which are secured to the motor frame 
by vuleabeston headed bolts. These arms admit of radial 
adjustment to compensate for wear of the commutator. 
The tension springs may be thrown back and fastened 
out of the way, facilitating the inspection of the brushes. 

Each arm carries two carbon brushes 14’’x2” in seec- 
tion. The tension springs for each brush are independ- 
ently adjusted. 

Flexible leads of rubber insulated cable are brought 
out through bushings of semi-hard rubber, set in the 
motor frame. 

Curve sheet shows the characteristic curves of this 
motor under conditions of variable load, as found in 
locomotive practice. 

CoNTROLLER. The controller is of the L-4 type of 
series parallel controller, and the accompanying diagram 
(Fig. 203) shows the wiring arrangement of motors and 
resistance steps from zero to full multiple operation. 

STEEL UNDERFRAME. The underframing of this loco- 
motive consists of two center sills, two side sills, two end 
sills, two bolster sills and its diagonal bracing. 

The center sills consist of two 12’x12” plate girders 
composed of 14x12” plate with four angles 6x31% riv- 
eted together. 

The side sills are 12”, 3114 Ibs., ‘‘I’’ beams. 

The end sills are of the same plate girder section as 
the center sills fitted into the sills, and riveted together 
by 54x10x1114” angles and 34” rivets. 

The bolsters are also made of 12” plate girders fitted 
in between the side and center sills, and have reinforced 
top and bottom cover plates 1’’x8” riveted to all sills. 

The diagonal braces are 14’’x6” riveted to all sills top 
and bottom. 


ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 393 


The center plates are fitted over the bottom cover 
plates, and are bolted on with four 1” bolts. 

The draw bars are of the M. C. B. standard type, and 
they are connected to the center sills at each end of 
the steel framing, by channel steel spring pocket plates, 
riveted by 34” rivets to the two 12” plate girders which 
constitute the center sills. 

LocomorTivE Bopy Fram'na. The body framing is of 
oak. The cab which is located in the center is 7’ 8” 
square, and is provided with windows in the ends, sides, 
and doors, affording the operator a good view of the 
track while operating the locomotive in either direction. 
The body flooring, which extends to within 12” of each 
end is 2” of tongued and grooved pine. The outside 
sheeting, which extends clear down to the bottom of the 
side sills, is tongued, matched and grooved poplar. 

The inside sheeting of the sloping portion is 1” 
tongued and grooved pine. 

The outside of the sloping portion is covered by sheet 
iron of the No. 27 gauge. 

In the floor of the cab there is provided a trap door, 
giving access to a convenient tool box arranged between 
the steel sills of the underframing. 

The roof of the cab is sheeted over with poplar and 
painted canvas to make it weather proof. 

The locomotive body is securely bolted through the 
steel underframing, and the sloping ends are arranged 
to receive the ballast necessary to give the locomotive 
the proper weight on the drivers. 

Brakes. The locomotive is fitted with the latest type 
of Westinghouse automatic quick action brakes, so that 
it may handle steam, or electric cars fitted with auto- 
matic brakes. It is also fitted out with the Christensen 


394 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


straight air brake, so that it may handle electric freight 
or passenger cars equipped with straight air. By an 
ingenious arrangement the two engineer’s valves, con- 
veniently located, are made to interlock each other so 
that when it is desired to use the automatic air brake 
the engineer’s valve on the straight air line is locked and 
cannot be operated, or when it is desired to use the 
straight air brake the engineer’s valve on the automatic 
line is locked, and cannot be moved. This arrangement 
was made necessary to avoid any confusion, and possible 
accident due to operating the wrong valves. 

Air for the locomotive and its train is provided by an- 
electric driven air compressor of 25 feet capacity, located 
in the locomotive cab. This is provided with a pneu- 
matic electric governor which cuts off the current from 
the compressor motor when the pressure in the air tanks 
reaches 110 lbs. and automatically cuts it in when the 
pressure is reduced in the main reservoir to 95 Ibs. The 
necessary air gauges, switches, ete., are located in the 
cab, indicating main auxiliary and train line air pres- 
sures. The main and auxiliary air reservoirs are located 
underneath the steel framing. 

The locomotive is equipped with a double pneumatic 
sanding device on front, and rear trucks, so that sand 
may be delivered to front or rear trucks separately, or 
simultaneously in either direction. The sanding valves 
are located in the cab convenient to the operator. 

BELL. There is also provided a 14” locomotive bell, of 
ornamental design, located on one of the sloping ends of 
the body. This bell is swung by an air cylinder. When 
it becomes necessary to ring the bell, the operator turns 
a small valve in the cab, and the bell continues to ring 
till the air is shut off. This arrangement allows the 


ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 395 


operator free use of both hands for his controller, and 
air brakes. 

LicHt. An electric are searchlight is furnished on 
both ends of the locomotive, so that the operator may 
have a clear view of the track at night going in either 
direction. 

TROLLEY RETRIEVERS. ‘Trolley retrievers are also fur- 
nished at both ends, to take care of the trolley pole rope 
in normal condition, when the trolley wheel is on the 
wire. Should the wheel leave the wire, the retriever 
promptly pulls the pole down, preventing any destruc- 
tion of the overhead wires, and transmission lines. 

TROLLEY Base. The trolley base is of the most, ap- 
proved ball bearing type, permitting a ready response 
of the trolley wheel to any changes of alignment, or 
varying height of the transmission wire. 

Marker Licuts. Electric marker lights are provided 
under the roof of the cab at both ends, permitting the 
display of two green, two white or two red lights. These 
lenses are 514” diameter and are arranged in accord- 
ance with the rules of the Central Electric Railway 
Association, governing the use of classification and tail 
lights. 

This locomotive is one of the notable examples of a 
high speed, high grade engine, which may be used in 
freight or passenger service and has been designed and 
constructed so that it may be used in the company’s 
own business or it may serve to interchange and handle 
the cars of foreign lines, either steam or electric, as all 
its equipment will interchange with the Master Car 
Builders’ Standards of steam roads. 


ENCLOSED ARC HEADLIGHT EQUIPMENT FOR 
STREET RAILWAY SERVICH. 


FORM B. 


The equipment consists of two parts: the headlight, 
including cable, plug and two sockets; and the rheostat. 


TO PREPARE HEADLIGHTS FOR INSTALLING. 


When the headlights are received and unpacked, open 
the glass door and remove all shipping ties from the 
mechanism. ‘Carefully brush out all dust, ete., that may 
have accumulated. Examine the mechanism for loosened 
parts. 


INSTALLING THE SYSTEM. 


Connections should be made according to the diagram 
(Fig. 204), with the rheostat installed in a vertical posi- 
tion where there is a free draft of air. Be sure that 
the car dasher is grounded to the negative side of the 
line. That the headlight may be interchangeable for 
either end of the ear, each platform should be furnished 
with one of the sockets, to which the headlight can be 
attached as shown. 

Where it is desired to use incandescent lamps in place 
of the resistance, and thus utilize for car lighting the 
power otherwise lost, lamps should be connected in mul- 
tiple series so as to supply 4 amperes, and 80 volts to 
the headlight under average operating conditions. 

396 


ELECTRIC HEADLIGHTS 397 


ADJUSTING THE HEADLIGHT. 


All equipments are carefully adjusted and tested be- 
fore shipment. If the installation is made as above 
directed, 20 readjustment should be necessary. With 
the resistance in series with the headlight, and a 520 
volt line there should be approximately 4 amperes 80 
volts at the are. The current is dependent upon the 
amount of resistance in circuit, and the are voltage dec- 
pends upon the are length or, in other words, upon the 
position of the stop which limits the upward movement 
of the carbon clutch. 





Headlight _ 





BeUahI? =| lug Butch 
Fig. 204. Connections of Enclosed Are Headlight Equipment for Street 
Railway Service, Form B. 
The lower carbon should be raised shghtly from time 
to time to keep the are in focus. 


CONNECTING. 
Hang the headlight on the dasher and insert the pluy 
in the socket. When properly connected in circuit the 
upper carbon is positive. 


398 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


ENCLOSING GLOBE. 


The headlight should never be used without the enclos- 
ing globe which excludes the air from the are. The 
enclosing globe should be properly fitted at the bottom 
so as to make an air-tight joint. The upper edge of 
the globe must rest squarely against the cap. The num- 
ber of hours the lamp will burn with one trimming 
depends largely upon keeping the globe tight and exclud- 
ing the air. 


REFLECTOR. 


The reflector in front of the lamp mechanism is held 
in place by two screws. The inside surface should be 
kept clean and bright. 


CARBONS. 


Only the best grade of solid carbons of the following 
dimensions should be used: 

Upper, 6” long x 3%” diameter. 

Lower, 4” long x 34” diameter. 

Maximum allowable dia. of 3” carbons .400”. 

Minimum allowable dia. 34” carbons .390”. 

The total burning time of the above carbons should 
be about 24 hours. 


TRIMMING THE HEADLIGHT. 


As carbons vary somewhat in diameter, only those 
within the limits specified should be used. The carbons 
should pass freely through the enclosing globe cap, for 


ELECTRIC HEADLIGHTS 399 


any friction at this point will prevent the proper opera- 
tion of the lamp. Be sure the carbons are smooth and 
straight. 

To carbon the headlight, disconnect it from the circuit, 
and remove the lower carbon by opening the supporting 
spring at the bottom. The inner globe should be re- 
moved, eleaned and replaced, returning the holder to 
its proper position by bringing the top of the carbon to 
the focus of the reflector. Remove the cap on the top 
of the headlight and drop the upper earbon into the 
earbon tube. Replace the cap. 


RECENT DEVELOPMENTS OF LIGHTNING 
ARRESTERS. 
f 

Ordinarily a lightning discharge, which is an equali- 
zation of potential between the earth, and either clouds 
or saturated atmosphere above the earth, will take place 
through the path of least resistance, but, as pointed out 
by Rowland, there is a certain factor somewhat resem- 
bling inertia which causes the lightning, once started, to 
follow sometimes an irregular path, similarly, for in- 
stance, as when a piece of paper is suddenly torn. 
Transmission lines and buildings of ordinary height sur- 
rounded by trees are not peculiarly subject to damage 
from lightning, because they cover a comparatively small 
portion of the earth, and are surrounded by objects of 
ereater height, which offer a better path for the light- 
ning discharge to the earth. They do, however, receive 
some discharge, and the damage which might be done 
can be very great. It is, therefore, necessary to provide 
ample protection. 

Generally speaking, the severe manifestations of light- 
ning are confined to a relatively small area, which rarely 
exceeds in extent an area of about one square mile. It 
may be concluded from this that protective apparatus 
situated at certain points along the line will afford no 
protection to remote points. 

Generally speaking, the broad requirements for light- 
ning protection consist in supplying paths to ground 
for any charge which might accumulate on lines, or ma- 
chinery from any cause whatever. The ideal arrester 

400 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 401 


will cause excessive potential differences to be relieved 
instantaneously, and stop the flow of current, as soon as 
the potential has fallen to safe limits for the line. No 
one type of hghtning arrester fulfills all requirements, 
and accordingly it is found expedient to use different 
types and combinations, in different situations and under 
different conditions. 

For the protection of electric circuits, grounded guard 
wires are best, and when the cost over the whole system 
would prove prohibitive, they should be confined to such 
localities as are peculiarly liable to suffer destructive 
discharges. Three ground wires are required for the 
best practicable protection. One of these should he 
placed on top, and in the middle of the line, and should 
be a heavy galvanized steel cable, and the other two, 
which should be heavy telegraph wires, are placed out- 
side, and above the top side conductors. The ground 
wires should be earthed at every pole for the first 10 or 
12 poles from the building, and at every second pole on 
the rest of the line. Graded resistance or aluminum type 
lightning arresters should be installed on every feeder 
issuing from the station, and on primary and secondary 
of every transformer, and a surge protector in the sta- 
tion, but choke coils having a large number of turns 
should not be used in the station, as they represent a 
possible source of danger. 

Lightning may consist of a single discharge of great 
violence and very small duration, or it may consist of a 
creat number of distinct discharges following each other 
rapidly and each lasting only a very short time. Thus 
the same path may serve for a great number of short 
discharges closely following each other. The total time 
of passage and number of discharges have been deter- 


402 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


mined by Alex. Larsen from photographic records made 
with a revolving camera. In an extreme case, 48 flashes 
were recorded in a total interval of .624 second. This 
establishes the unsuitability of arresters depending upon 
moving parts for their operation. Such arresters might 
possibly leave the line unprotected during a minute in- 
terval of time, which might be of momentous magnitude 
in comparison with the very brief period of duration of 
a single lightning flash. 

Where from internal causes, such as flashing over a 
bushing or insulator, the arcing ground sends a series 
of oscillations through the circuit, it 1s necessary to pro- 
vide an arrester which will continue to discharge the 
abnormal voltage for a sufficient period to permit the 
operator to locate and isolate the trouble. Half an hour 
is generally found to suffice for the period of an arrester, 
as this will give time to discover the point of trouble, 
where this is remote from the station. 

Horn arresters placed along the line at various places 
will do much to protect insulators from puncturing or 
arcing across. These horn arresters should be adjusted 
to are at something below the wet arc-over voltage of 
the insulators, and should be connected to earth direct. 
Only one phase per pole should be protected by a horn 
arrester, so that in the event of two horns arcing simul- 
taneously, the earth resistance can be utilized to limit 
the discharge. Ground wires should not be grounded 
at poles carrying horn arresters. 

Lightning rods above wooden poles are an advantage. 
Graded resistance multigap, or aluminum arresters 
should be used on outgoing and incoming lines. Choke 
coils should be in the circuit just back of arresters, 
which, in turn, are placed quite near the passages and 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 403 


are provided with disconnecting switches. Single-phase 
locomotives have a specially designed graded resistance 
multigap type of arrester, which meets the requirements 
of space limitation. 

For voltages exceeding 35,000 the aluminum, or elec- 
trolytic type of arrester should be recommended exclu- 
sively, and even for moderate, and low voltages they are 
so far superior to other types that their ultimate selec- 


ee / 





Ve 


1 
wleleleleleleleleleleleleieielelelelcleleleleleleleleeleleleee) 
1 ST os old BE) a Na Pa ed 


4 


wes 





Fig. 205. ‘Lightning Arrester. 


tion reverts to a question only of initial cost. Alumi- 
num arresters are designed especially to take care of 
recurrent, or continuous discharges, which are, as a rule, 
of comparatively low frequency, and therefore travel 
over the entire system, so that even if the system is 
supplied with multigap arresters, it is advisable to in- 
stall one or more aluminum arresters having low adjust- 
ment. This arrangement will prevent the other types 
of arresters from discharging continuously until they 
are injured, 


404 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The general theory of the multigap arrester is as fol- 
lows: When voltage is applied across a series of multigap 
cylinders, the voltage distribution is not uniform. The 
voltage distributes according to the capacity of the eyl- 
inders, both between themselves and also to ground, and 
the capacity of the cylinders to ground, results in the 
concentration of voltage across the gaps nearest the line. 
Fig. 205 shows the theoretical voltage gradient along an 
arrester. The voltage across the end gaps reaches a 
certain value. They are across, passing the strain back 
to the other gaps, which in turn are over until the spark 
has passed entirely across. The arrester in this manner 
ares over at voltage much lower than would be required 
if the voltage distributed evenly. When the arrester 
has arced over, and current is flowing the voltage then 
does distribute evenly between the gaps, and is for this 
reason too low to maintain an alternating current arc. 
The are, therefore, lasts only to the end of a half eyele, 
and then goes out. The maximum voltage per gap at 
which the are will extinguish at the end of the half 
eycle depends to a great extent upon the metal of the 
eylinders. Thus some metals are more efficient than 
others in extinguishing the are. When the voltage of 
an alternating current passes through zero, of course no 
eurrent flows. Before the current flows in the reverse 
direction the voltage must again break through the die- 
lectric. The voltage required to do this depends upon 
how much the dielectric has been weakened by the 
passage of the are. The cooler the arc, the less the 
dielectric is weakened, and the higher will be the voltage 
required to reverse the are. As the temperature of the 
are depends upon the boiling point of the cathode metal, 
in very much the same way as the temperature of steam 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS : 405 


depends upon the boiling point of the water, metals 
with low boiling points are used for the lghtning 
arrester cylinders, in order to keep down the are tem- 
perature. : 

The use of resistance in a lightning arrester needs 
very careful consideration. Lightning does not readily 
pass through resistance, especially when in series with 
multigaps, and therefore series resistance should not be 
used. At the same time it is very desirable in some 
way to limit the current. This problem has at last been 
solved by use of a low shunt resistance, shunting a part 
of the gaps and so proportioned to divert the current 
from the gaps, after the discharge has passed the ground. 
Shunt resistance has been used before, but never for 
this purpose, and was never made low enough to divert 
the are in this way. 

It is obvious, of course, that a discharge taking place 
through a high resistance will not relieve the line except 
in a case of the static. What happens, however, is some- 
thing lke this: When a surge of dangerous voltage 
rises, and before it reaches a danger point, the series 
gaps are over. The series gaps then being practically 
short-circuited by the are the voltage concentrates across 
the lowest division of the shunted gaps, and these at 
once also break down. The current is then limited by 
the medium resistance, and the voltage is concentrated 
across the second division of the arrester. If these gaps 
break down, the discharge is hmited only by the low 
resistance, which should take care of most cases. If 
necessary, however, the voltage can ‘‘break back’’ in 
this way, and cut out all resistance. The number of 
gaps to rectify depends largely on the current that flows. 
In this arrester the number of gaps discharging increases 


406 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


as the limiting resistance decreases. The arrester will, 
therefore, operate and extinguish the are at the end of 
the half-cycle no matter which path the current takes. 


LINE 









FUSE 





Fig. 206. Station Arrester, 


INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSTALLING 600 VOLT D. Cc. ALUMINUM 
LIGHTNING ARRESTERS. 


The principal elements of this arrester are two cells, 
each consisting of two concentric aluminum plates 
immersed in an electrolyte contained in a glass jar. 

The outside plate of each cell should be the positive, 
and the inner one the negative, as indicated by the 
marking of the four studs on the porcelain cover, two 
studs supporting each plate. 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 407 


In addition, station arresters are fitted with a balane- 
ing resistance in shunt with each cell and a series fuse; 
ear arresters, with a series fuse as connecting lnk be- 
tween the two cells. Diagrams of connections are shown 
in Figs. 206 and 207. 

To Fill the Arrester. Unscrew the metal rings at the 
top of the jars and lft off the porcelain covers, with 


Ling 





Fig. 207. Car Arrester. 


the aluminum plates attached, without removing the 
connection between the two units. Pour enough electro- 
lyte into the jars to bring the level to about one inch 
from cover. Add 1% pint of oil to each jar. 

In transferring the electrolyte, or oil from the carboy, 
or other container used for shipping, employ nothing 
but clean aluminum, or glass vessels and funnels. Take 
every precaution to prevent any dust or other material 
from getting into the electrolyte. 


408 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


IMPORTANT. 


Although the cells are shipped with film in prime 
condition, we have found it advisable before connecting 
permanently to the circuit to connect the arrester in 
series with five 120 volt incandescent lamps across the 
600 volt circuit. The lamps will burn brightly for an 
instant and then rapidly diminish to darkness, thus indi- 
cating that the film is all right. If the lamps are dark 
at first, the circuit should be opened and closed, and a 
small snappy spark at the contact point will show that 
the circuit is complete and the film in proper condition. 
The lamps should then be removed and the cells con- 
nected directly to the circuit. 


Connections. These should be as short as possible be- 
tween line and ground, and only to those points on 
which the terminals are placed when shipped. Use only 
the style of terminal furnished, as they afford no chance 
for a short circuit by swinging against the opposite ter- 
minal. In the case of pole arresters the test with series 
lamps, as described above, should be made before making 
the last connection, otherwise there may be a consider- 
able flash due to an instantaneous current rush. The 
ground connection of these line arresters should be made 
directly to the rail, or ground bus, and driven pipe 
ground. 


Operation. If the arrester has stood assembled in its 
electrolyte for a month or more, when reconnected there 
will be a momentary rush of current which may amount 
to several hundred amperes. To avoid this current rush 
use lamps in series as explained above. 

It is preferable, however, when an arrester is to be 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS +409 


left out of service for some time, to pour out the electro- 
Iyte and oil, wash the plates and jars with clean water 
and put the plates back in the jar. When replacing in 
service, make the usual test with lamps. 

After operating for some time, arresters without bal- 
ancing resistance, may divide the voltage unequally be- 
tween cells, which is indicated by sparkling of the plates 
in one cell. Hence, car arresters which have no balane- 
ing resistances should be inspected frequently, say once 
a month, and when sparkling is noted, the arrester should 
be removed from the circuit, and connected to a test 
circuit with a bank of five lamps in shunt with each jar; 
that is ten lamps from line to line with the middle point 
connected between cells. After operating this way for 
several hours remove the lamps. If sparkling has ceased, 
the arrester is ready to be returned to the car. 

After the arrester has been in operation for a short 
time, the electrolyte may become dark in appearance, 
but this condition is normal. 

Inspection should cover answers to the following 
questions: 

1. Are there any loose connections ? 

2. Is the level of the electrolyte at the proper height ? 

3. Are the positive plates worn off at the surface of 
the electrolyte? 

4. Are the connecting leads as short as possible? 

5. Does either cell sparkle? 


Remember that the tests with serves lamps should 
always be used with the arrester, as explained under 
‘““‘Important,’’ before it is connected for the first time to 
the circuit, or after vt has been out of service for a month 
or more. 


410 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


MULTIGAP LIGHTNING ARRESTERS FOR ALTERNATING 
CURRENTS. 


These arresters, designed upon an elaboration of Prof. 
Elihu Thomson’s fundamental patents, consists of a 
series of spark gaps shunted by graded resistances, but 
without series resistance. The advantages possessed by 
them are: 

1. Uniform voltage discharge over a wide range of 
frequency due to graded resistance. 

2. Shunting the dynamic current through resistance. 

3. The ‘‘breaking back’’ action on low frequency 
surges. 

4. Fuse in ground leg of non-grounded neutral 
systems. 

5. Adjustable gap in each leg shunted by a fuse. 

6. Metallic resistance rods of improved composition. 

7. Durable knurled cylinders of special alloy. 

8. General Electric standard multiplex connection. 

When properly installed they will perform the follow- 
ing functions: 

First. Prevent excessive rise of potential of a transi- 
tory nature between lines, as well as between lines and 
cround. 

Second. Restrain the flow of electric current across 
the gaps, and extinguish the are when normal potential 
is restored. 

Third. Discharge high potentials covering a wide 
range of frequency. 

The essential elements of the arrester are, a number 
of cylinders spaced with a small air gap between them 
' and, placed between line and ground, and between line 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 411 


and line. In operation the multigap arrester discharges 
at a much lower voltage than would:a single gap having 
a length equal to the sum of the small gaps. 

In explaining the action of mul!tigaps, there are three 
things to consider: 

1. The transmission of the static stress along the line 
of cylinders. 






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O 

O 

O 

° 
Fig. 208. Zoe et NN of Resistances, 

2. The sparking of the gaps. 

3. The action and duration of the dynamic current 
which follows the spark, and the extinguishment of the 
are. 

A spark may be defined as conduction of electricity 


by the air, and an are as conduction of electricity 
by vapor of the electrode, 


412 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Distribution of Static Stress Along Cylinders. The 
cylinders of the multigap arrester act like plates of con- 
densers in series. This condenser function is the essen- 
tial feature of its operation. When a static stress is 
applied to a series of cylinders between line and ground 
(Fig. 208), the stress is instantly carried from end to 
end. If the top eylinder is positive it will attract a 
negative charge on the face of the adjacent cylinder, 


e- — — y— — I) 






HY) 


POOH HMOHMIOMHMDIDIHY'DIDIDID'D'OHNIDHDIGIO! 








Fig. 209. Diagram Showing Condenser Action of Cylinders and 
Potential Gradient for Static Stress. 


and repel an equal positive charge to the opposite face, 
and so on down the entire row. The second cylinder 
has a definite capacity relative to the third cylinder and 
also to the ground; consequently the charge induced on 
the third cylinder will be less than on the second eylin- 
der, due to the fact that only part of the positive charge 
on the second eylinder induces negative electricity on 
the third, while the rest of the charge induces negative 
electricity to the ground. Hach successive cylinder, 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 413 


counting from the top of the arrester, will have a 
slightly smaller charge of electricity than the preceding 
one. This condition has been expressed as a ‘‘steeper 
potential gradient near the line.”’ 


Sparking of the Gaps. The quantity of electricity 
induced on the second cylinder is greater than on any 
lower cylinder, and its gap has a greater potential strain 
across it as shown by Fig. 209. When the potential 
across the first gap is sufficient to spark, the second cyl- 
inder is charged to line potential and the second gap 
receives the static strain and breaks down. The suc- 
cessive action is similar to overturning a row of nine- 
pins by pushing the first pin against the second. This 
phenomenon explains why a given length of air gap con- 
centrated in one gap requires more potential to spark 
across it, than the same total length made up of a row 
of multigaps. As the spark crosses each successive gap, 
the potential gradient along the remainder readjusts 
itself. 


How the Dynamic Arc 1s Extinguished. When the 
sparks extend across all the gaps the dynamic current 
will follow if, at that instant, the dynamic potential is 
sufficient. On account of the relatively greater current 
of the dynamic flow, the distribution of potential along 
the gaps becomes equal, and has the value necessary to 
maintain the dynamic current arc on a gap. The dyna- 
mie current continues to flow until the potential of the 
generator passes through zero to the next half cyele, 
when the arc-extinguishing quality of the metal ecylin- 
ders comes into action. The alloy contains a metal of 
low boiling point which prevents the reversal of the 
dynamic current. It is a rectifying effect, and before 


414 ELECTRIC RATLROADING 


the potential again reverses, the are vapor in the gaps 
has cooled to a non-conducting state. 


BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GENERAL ELECTRIC MULTIGAP LIGHT- 
NING ARRESTERS. 


Rectification. The greater the value of the dynamic 
current, the greater the number of gaps required to 
extinguish the ares. 

Shunting by Resistance. Any are is unstable and can 
be extinguished by placing a properly proportioned 
resistance in parallel with it. 

Effect of Frequency. The higher the frequency of the 
lightning oscillation, the more readily will the multigap 
respond to the potential. 

Briefly stated, the problem is to properly limit the 
dynamic current, so that the are may be extinguished; 
to arrange a shunt circuit so that the series resistance 
will be automatically cut out if safety demands it on 
account of a heavy lightning stroke and, while retaining 
these properties, to make the arrester sensitive to a wide 
range of frequencies. It should be noted that series 
resistance limits the rate of discharge of the lightning, 
as well as of the dynamic current. 


GRADED SHUNT RESISTANCE. 


The desired result is obtained in the General Electric 
Multigap Lightning Arresters by the use of graded shunt 
resistance. Without regarding the ‘‘cumulative’’ or 
‘‘breaking back’’ effect of the graded resistance, de- 
scribed later, this type of arrester may be considered as 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 415 


four arresters in one. First, for small discharges there 
are a few gaps in series with a high shunt resistance. 
This part of the arrester will safely discharge accumu- 
lated static, and also all disruptive discharges of small 
ampere capacity. In Fig. 210 this path is shown through 
H (resistance) and GS (gaps). Second, there are a 


| 


SOTA Gap 





Fig. 210. Connections for 33,000-volt Y System with Grounded 
Neutral. 


number of gaps in series with a medium shunt resistance 
which will discharge disruptive strokes of medium am- 
pere capacity; in Fig. 210 this path is shown through 
M (resistance) and GH plus GS (gaps). Third, there is 
a greater number of gaps in series with a low shunt 
resistance which will discharge heavy disruptive strokes. 
In the figure this path is shown through ZL (resistance) 
and GM plus GH plus GS (gaps). Fourth and last, the 
total number of gaps has no series resistance, thus 
enabling the arrester to freely discharge the heaviest 


416 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


induced strokes. In Fig. 210 this path is shown through 
zero resistance and GL plus GM plus GH plus GS 
(gaps). 

In each of the above circuits the number of gaps, and 
the resistance are so proportioned as to extinguish the 
dynamie are at the end of the half cycle in which the 
lightning discharge takes place. 


THE ‘‘CUMULATIVE’’? OR ‘‘BREAKING BACK’’ EFFECT. 


The graded shunt resistances give a valuable effect 
not brought out in the previous description, where the 
arrester is considered as four separate arresters. This 
is the ‘‘cumulative’’ or “‘breaking back’’ action. 

When a lghtning strain between line and ground 
takes place, the potential is carried down the high re- 
sistance, H, to the series gaps, GS, and the series gaps 
spark over. Although it may require several thousand 
volts to spark across an air gap, it requires relatively 
only a few volts to maintain the are which follows the 
spark. In consequence, when the gaps GS spark over, 
the lower end of the high resistance is reduced practi- 
eally to ground potential. If the high resistance can 
earry the discharge current without giving an ohmic 
drop sufficient to break down the shunted gaps GH, 
nothing further occurs—the are goes out. If, on the 
contrary, the lightning stroke is too heavy for this, the 
potential strain is thrown across the shunted gaps, GH, 
equal in number to the previous set. In other words, 
the same voltage breaks down both of the groups of 
gaps, GS and GH, in succession. The lightning dis- 
charge current is now limited only by the medium re- 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 417 


sistanee, M, and the potential is concentrated across the 
gaps, Gi. If the medium resistance cannot discharge 
the lightning, the gaps GM spark, and the discharge is 
limited only by the low resistance. The low resistance 
should take care of most cases, but with extraordinarily 
heavy strokes and high frequencies, the discharge can 
‘“break back’’ far enough to cut out all resistance. In 
the last step the resistance is relatively low in propor- 
tion to the number of shunt gaps, GZ, and is designed 
to eut out the dynamic current instantly from the gap, 
GL. The illustration (Fig. 214) of the 2,200 volt 
arrester shows that the low resistance actually performs 
this function. This ‘‘breaking back’’ effect is valuable 
in discharging lightning of low frequency, in a manner 
better than has been obtained before. 

After the spark passes, the dynamic ares are extin- 
guished in the reversed order. The low resistance, L, 
is proportioned so as to draw the dynamic ares in- 
stantly from the gaps, GD. The dynamic current con- 
tinues in the next group of gaps, GM, until the end of 
the half cycle of the generator wave. At this instant 
the medium resistance, M, aids the rectifying quality of 
the gaps, GM, by shunting out the low frequeney dyna- 
mic current of the generator. On account of this shunt- 
ing effect the current dies out sooner in the gaps, GM, 
than it otherwise would. In the same manner, but to a 
less degree, the high resistance, H, draws the dynamie 
current from the gaps, GH. This current now being 
limited by the high resistance, the are is easily extin- 
guished at the end of the first one-half cycle of the 
generator wave. 


418 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


‘Vv’? UNIT FOR MULTIGAP ARRESTERS. 


The High-voltage Multigap Arrester is made up of 
‘“V’’ units, each unit consisting of gaps between knurled 
cylinders, and connected together at their ends by short 
metal strips. The base is of porcelain, which thoroughly 
insulates each cylinder, and insures the proper function- 
ing of the multigaps. 


CYLINDERS. 


The cylinders are made of an improved alloy that 
contains metal of low boiling point which gives the recti- 
fying effect, and metals of high boiling point which can- 
not vaporize in the presence of the one of low boiling 
point. The cylinders are heavily knurled. As the are 
plays on the point of a knurl it gradually burns back 
and when the metal of low boiling temperature is used 
up, the gap is increased at that particular point. The 
knurling therefore, insures longer life to the cylinder, 
by forcing successive ares to shift to a new point. When 
worn along the entire face, the cylinder should be slightly 
turned. 


RESISTANCE RODS. 


The low resistance section of the graded shunt is com- 
posed of rods of a new metallic alloy. These rods have 
large current-carrying capacity, and practically zero 
temperature coefficient up to red heat. 

The medium and high resistance rods are of the same 
standard composition previously used. The contacts are 
metal caps shrunk on the ends; the resistances are per- 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 419 


manent in value and the inductance is reduced to a 
minimum. ‘The rods are designed with a large factor of 
safety, and have sufficient heat absorbing capacity to 
take the dynamie energy following transitory lightning 
discharges. They are glazed to prevent absorption of 
moisture, and surface arcing. 


DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARRESTER FOR GROUNDED Y AND 
NON-GROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEMS. 


The connection for a three-phase arrester, 33,000 volts 
between lines, are shown in the illustrations (Figs. 210 
and 211). One illustration (Fig. 210) shows the design 
for a thoroughly grounded Y system and the other for 
a non-grounded neutral system. The latter (Fig. 211) 
includes delta, ungrounded Y, and Y systems grounded 
through a high resistance. 

The difference in design les in the use of a fourth 
arrester leg between .the multiplex connection and 
ground, on ungrounded systems. The reason for intro- 
ducing the fourth leg is evident. The arrester is de- 
signed to have two legs between line and line. If one 
line became accidentally grounded, the full line poten- 
tial would be thrown across one leg, if the fourth or 
ground leg were not present. On a Y system with a 
grounded neutral, the accidentally grounded phase 
causes a short circuit of the phase, and the arrester is 
relieved of the strain by the tripping of the circuit 
breaker. Briefly stated, the fourth or ground leg of the 
arrester is used when, for any reason, the system could 
be operated, even for a short time, with one phase 
erounded. 


420 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


MULTIPLEX CONNECTION. 


The multiplex connection consists of a common con- 
nection between the phase legs of the arrester above the 
earth connection, and provides an arrester’ better 






MEOULIT PESISLOSICE. 





¥ 


Fig. 211. Connections for 33,000-volt Delta or Ungrounded Y 
Systems. 


adapted to relieve high potential surges between lines 
than would otherwise be possible. Its use also econo- 
mizes greatly in space and material for delta and par- 
tially grounded or non-grounded Y systems. 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 4921 


FUSE AUXILIARIES. 


The practice of introdueing an auxiliary adjustable 
gap between each lne wire and its corresponding leg of 
the arrester has been discarded in the new design with 
marked inerease in the sensitiveness of the arrester. As 
the gap is necessary, under certain abnormal conditions, 
it is left on the arrester, but short circuited by a fuse 
so that it comes into service only when the fuse blows 
on account of an are between phase and ground, or some 





Bice 212. aVen Unit of Multigan Lightning “Arresters. 


similar extremely severe continued strain. The sensi- 
tiveness is also greatly increased by the addition of a 
similar shunting fuse around the adjustable gap in the 
eround leg of the arrester. The ground leg is necessary 
only when there is an accidental ground of a phase and, 
ordinarily the increased sensitiveness is maintained 
continually. 


ZB ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


LOCATION—SPACING AND SETTING OF ADJUSTABLE GAP. 


Ample wall space should be provided and _ plenty of 
room in front should be left for the operator. The 
arresters should be placed as near as possible to where 
the lines enter the building. The following minimum 
separation distances have proved entirely satisfactory. 


TABLE GIVING PROPER SPACE BETWEEN LIGHTNING ARREST- 
ERS AND SETTING OF ADJUSTABLE GAP. 





ADE eta ee 
Distance in Inches istance 
ae Between Live Parts Between eels of 
ae of Adjacent Phases Centers aD 
(See Note) 

7,600 Su 28” ve" 
12,250 8” 28/” Ve 
13,500 8”” 33” $e 
17,000 LO 30” Veg 
22.000 1, 37” yy 
27,000 ae 48” iN 
32,000 ANE Sele a 
37,000 26” 56” 3/4 


Note—If barriers are used the width of barbers 
should be added to distances given. 


It is advisable to locate arresters in a dry place, and 
before assembling them the wooden supports, insulators, 
ete., should be thoroughly dried of all moisture which 
may have collected during transportation. 

The adjustable spark gap on these arresters is shunted 
by a fuse. This fuse blows under certain conditions 
and euts in the added protection of the gap. The set- 
tings of this gap for the various arresters should be as 
already explained. 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS | 493 


VOLTAGE RANGE OF ARRESTERS. 


Lightning arresters of the form described have been 
designed for voltages from 5,700 to 37,000. For lower 
voltages, down to 300 volts, alternating current, the 
arresters are of slightly different design, having only 

































































Fig. 213. Installation of a 12,000-volt, Three-Phase, Multigap 
Lightning Arrester in the Garfield Park Sub-Station of the 
West Chicago Park Commission. 


two resistance rods. For 300 volts and less no resistance 
is necessary, as the voltage is so low that the are cannot 
hold, These arresters, therefore, consist simply of sparix 


gaps. 


424 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


LOW VOLTAGE ARRESTERS—FORMS Fl AND F2. 
300 To 5,700 vouts. 


The 2,200-volt (Figs. 214 and 217) arrester consists 
of one unit having fourteen cylinders, nine of which are 
shunted by a low resistance and eleven by a high resist- 
ance. As in the case of the high voltage arresters, the 
grading of resistance provides selective paths for dis- 


Line. 





Ground, 
Fig. 214. Form F1, 2,200-volt Multigap Arrester for Stations. 


charges. Its action and advantages are therefore similar 
to those of the high-voltage arrester. Accumulated static 
charges pass off across the high resistance, and two gaps. 
High frequency discharges pass across all the gaps; dis- 
charges of moderate frequency across the low resistance, 
and four gaps. The low resistance is so proportioned to 
the number of shunted gaps that the high frequency dis- 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 425 


charge across these gaps is not followed by the dynamic 
current; the dynamic shunting at once to the low 
resistanee. The discharge takes place over all the gaps, 
but the ares between the gaps shunted by the low resist- 
ances are very small compared with the bright ares be- 
tween the last four gaps. The static discharge passes 
through all the gaps, while the half wave of dynamic 
eurrent following the static is shunted part of the way 
by the resistance. 


S—88 Arperes 
PI QXITIILITII 





Current tn Shunt Res/stomce 


a VWLat/e O/scharge 
Cyerrent 1177 SHUNEESA Gagos 


2-3200 Vo/ts 
VIQXIIVLIN 






Fig. 215. Oscillograph Curves Showing Lightning Arrester Action. 


An oscillogram of this phenomenon is shown in Fig. 
915. The only current in the shunted gaps is the cur- 
rent of static discharge. It should be noted, however, 
that the current shown is not a measure of the true cur- 
rent, as the oscillograph cannot respond to currents of 
such high frequency. 


426 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


This arrester is designed to operate across 2,200 volts. 
It is used, however, from each line to ground, giving, 
thus connected, sufficient protection and being always 
able to handle a discharge when one line is grounded. 
It is built to be used single-pole, but by placing two or 
three in the same box, becomes double-pole or triple-pole. 


ine, 





Ground, 
Fig. 216. Form F2, 3,000-volt Multigap Arrester for Stations. 


The 1,000-volt arrester is the same in design, but has 
only one gap between the high resistance rod and line. 

The. 3,000-volt arrester (see Fig. 216) is based on the 
same general principle as the 2,200-volt arrester, differ- 
ing from it mainly in having two additional gaps to take 
care of the higher voltage. 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 427 


The 2,200-volt arrester (Fig. 217) is used in various 
combinations to form arresters of higher voltage. 


LOW-VOLTAGE LIGHTNING ARRESTERS. 
300 VOLTS OR LESS. 


For low-voltage, alternating-current circuits up to 300 
volts the lightning arrester shown in Fig. 218 is used. 
This type meets the requirements for the protection of 





Fig. 217. 2,200-volt, Form F1, Lightning Arrester, Discharging 
and Shunting the Dynamic Current. 


low voltage circuits such as transformer secondaries, 
motors, series are lamps, etc. These arresters are made 
in single, double and triple-pole units. 


PROTECTION OF MIXED OVERHEAD, AND CABLE SYSTEMS. 


It is frequently necessary, and desirable for circuits 
to dip underground when passing through cities, under 
rivers, etc., and in these cases some form of metal cov- 
ered cable is generally used. Resonance invariably pro- 


428 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


duces high potentials at the junction of overhead, and 
underground lines, and these potentials are often of suf- 
ficient value to break down the insulation of the cables, 
and also the insulation of apparatus installed on the 
system. 

Whenever lines contain both inductance, and capacity 
in appreciable quantities, high voltages, which endanger 
the insulation of the whole system, and which it is im- 
possible to detect on ordinary switchboard instruments 
may exist. Abnormal voltages are therefore often found 
in circuits containing a combination of underground, 
and overhead circuits and in underground transmission 
lines. 





Fig. 218. Single-Pole Arrester. 


CONSTANT CURRENT ARRESTERS. 


For constant current lighting cireuits, horn arresters 
with resistances are recommended. It is advisable to 
place these arresters in the station on each outgoing line, 
When cables are used, the arrester should be placed on 
the pole where the cable joins the overhead wires. The 
accompanying illustration (Fig. 220) shows the appear- 
ance of a horn lightning arrester, 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 429 


DISCONNECTING SWITCHES. 


Lightning arresters with disconnecting switches are 
desirable in order that they may be disconnected from 
the line for proper inspection, adjustment, cleaning, 
ete., without opening the line ecireuit. 





Fig. 219. Double-Pole and Triple-Pole 300-volt Arresters. 


The disconnecting switches, except the 2,500-volt 
switches, are of the post insulator type. The 2,500-volt 
switches are single-blade, front connected, and are 
mounted directly on marble bases. The post insulator 
switches are arranged for mounting on flat surfaces. 


430 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


CHOKE COILS. 


The proper selection of choke coils is an important 
feature of hLghtning protection. Choke coils should be 
used with lightning arresters except, when the arresters 
are used to protect cable systems. 





Fig. 220. Horn Arrester for Constant Current Circuits. 


Three types of choke coils are shown in Figures 222 
and 223. The 4,600-volt coil is made of insulated wire, 
wound on wooden core supported by iron feet. The 
6,000-volt coil is made of insulated wire and is mounted 
on marble base. For voltages above 6,000 the ‘‘hour 
olass’’ type with air insulated turns is used. With this 
type the coil is mounted on a wooden, slate or marble 
base. 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 431 


The ‘‘hour glass’’ type has the following advantages 
on high voltages. 

1. Should there be any arcing between adjacent turns, 
the coils will reinsulate themselves after the discharge. 

2. They are mechanically strong, and sagging is pre- 
vented by tapering the coils toward the center turns. 

3. The insulating supports can best be designed for 
the strains that they have to withstand. 

In providing lightning arresters the following points 
should be considered : 





Fig. 221. Post Type Insulator Disconnecting Switch. 


1. What is the normal line to line voltage? 

2. How many sets of transmission lines are there? 

3. Is the system single-phase, two-phase, or three- 
phase; or three-phase, four wire? 

4. Is the system delta connected; Y connected, neu- 
tral non-grounded; or Y connected, neutral grounded? 

5. If single-phase, is the neutral grounded? 

6. Are switches to be furnished with the arrester? 

7. If so, are they to be double-blade or single-blade ? 

8. If double-blade switches are required, state the cur- 
rent-carrying capacity of the line switch. 

9. Are choke coils to be furnished? If so, state their 
ampere capacities and the number desired. 


432 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


10. The number of switch hooks to be furnished. 

11. If the line is partly overhead, and partly under- 
eround, submit a rough sketch that shows where the 
underground portion is located with reference to the 
stations and the remainder of the line. 


DIRECT CURRENT LIGHTNING ARRESTERS. 


The Type M Form D-2 arrester (Fig. 224) has been 
the standard for direct current circuits for several years, 
and is furnished for lighting and power circuits cf from 


60 to 375 volts, and for railway and power circuits of 
from 250 to 1,800 volts. 





Fig. 222. Hour Glass Type—Choke Coil 15,000-35,000 Volts. 


The present form of arrester is somewhat longer and 
narrower than the earlier types, and the spark gap, and 
non-inductive resistance are in a straight line, thus form- 
ing a direct path for the discharge, and reducing to a 
minimum the possibility of short circuit in the box in 
ease of excessively heavy lightning discharges. One of 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS. 433 


the valuable features of the MD-2 arrester is the fact 
that all parts can be readily inspected on removing the 
eover of the poreelain enclosing box (Fig. 225) and a 
glance will show if the arrester is in proper condition 
for the next storm. The gap is surrounded by a strong 
electro-magnet, which immediately blows out the dy- 
namic are through the chute after the lightning dis- 
charge has passed. 

The gaps on arresters up to 850 volts are adjusted to 
.025 inch, and on higher voltages to .094 inch. These ar- 
rangements have been found to afford excellent protec- 
tion to the insulation of the equipments, due to the low 
breakdown points. 





6,000 Volts. 4,600 Volts. 
Fig. 223. Low Voltage Choke Coils. 


The spark gap terminals are threaded, and attached to 
the lid of the box, thus affording a ready method of ad- 
justment, positive grip on the terminals, and easy access 
for examination. 


GROUND CONNECTIONS. 


In all lightning arrester installations it is of utmost 
importance to make perfect ground connections, as a 
large majority of lightning arrester troubles can be 
traced to the lack of this precaution. It has been cus- 


434 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


tomary to ground a lightning arrester by means of a 
large metal plate buried in a bed of charcoal, at a depth 
of six or eight feet in the earth. 

A more satisfactory method of making a ground is to 
drive a number of 1 in. iron pipes six or eight feet into 
the earth at several points about the station, connecting 
all these pipes together by means of copper wire or 
preferably copper strip. A quantity of salt should be 
placed around each pipe at the surface of the ground and 





Fig. 224. Direct Current Arrester, Type M, Form D-2. 


the ground thoroughly moistened with water. It is ad- 
visable to connect. the pipes to the iron frame work of the 
station, and also to any water mains, metal flumes, or 
trolley rails that are available. 

For the station of ordinary size the following recom- 
mendation is made. Place three earth-pipes equally 
spaced near each outside wall, making twelve altogether, 
and place three extra pipes spaced about 6 feet apart at a 
point nearest the arrester. 

When plates are placed in streams of running water, 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS ) 435 


it is much better for them to be buried in the mud along 
the bank, than to he in the stream. Streams with rocky 
bottoms are to be avoided except as a last resort. 
Whenever plates are placed at any distance from the 
arrester it is advisable to drive a pipe in the earth 
directly beneath the arrester, thus making the ground 





Fig. 225. Direct Current Lightning Arrester—Interior. 


connections as short as possible. Earth plates at a dis- 
tance cannot be depended upon. Long ground wires in 
a station eannot be depended upon, unless a lead is ear- 
ried to the multiple pipe-earths described above. 

In view of the fact that it 1s advisable to occasionally 
examine the ground connections to see that they are in 
proper condition, it is desirable to lay out the exact plans 


436 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


of the location of the ground plates, ground wires, or 
pipes, with a brief description of them, so that at any 
time the data may be referred to. 

From time to time the resistance of the ground con- 
nections should be measured to determine their condi- 
tion. This is very easily done when pipe grounds are 
installed, as the resistance of one pipe can be accurately 
determined, when three or more pipes are used. The 
resistance of a single pipe ground in good condition has 
an average value of about 15 ohms. A simple and satis- 
factory method of keeping account of the condition of 
the earth connections is to divide the pipe-earths into 
two groups, and connect each group to the 110-volt hght- 
ing circuit, with an ammeter in series. If there is a flow 
of about 20 amperes the conditions are satisfactory, pro- 
vided the pipe-earths are properly distributed around 
the station. 


437 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 








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ADVLIOA MOT XOX AONVLSISAN LNOHS GACVAY LNAYUNO ONILVNUALIV—SUALSTAAV ONINLHDIT 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING | 


*"SOIIM OPISINO SSO1NV 93BI[OAy 





ejod a[Suls O869F 
aod 9] Suls 9F GC) 
ejod 9] suls 17 FCF 
aod 9[SuUls O8E9F 
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god a[ Sus 11F¢F 
aod af suls TTL9F 


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ajod osuts 
gjod a[ suis 
ejod ej surs 
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ajod asus 
ajod ayqnop 
gjod a[suls 
ajod a, suls 
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ajod a[suls 


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O1IM Voy} ‘asvyd JoyIEN?e) 
OIIM 9a1u} f‘asveyd r1ajIeN’y 


[vaqyneu pepunois 


pepunoisun 
papunorsun 
poepunoisun 


poepunoisun 
popunoisun 


pepunoisun 


pepunois oul, suo ‘aseyd o[surg 
pepunois sult auo ‘aseyd a[sulg 
pepunois sury suo ‘esvyd sfsutg 
[etjneu papunois oseyd apsurg 
[84yneu papunois osvyd a[sulg 


[eyneu pepunois osvyd s[sutg 


[eiyneu pepunois osvyd a[surg 


asvyd e[ surg 


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OOSFy-“ LOSS, 
00SE-L096 
0096-1006 
0006-006T 
00LS-TOSP 
OOSF-LOSE 


00E8-1002 
0006-108 
Log 03 dq 


OOLS-TSTP 
OST F-LO0S 
0008-L0&G 


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‘onry OF oULry 
Ulajsf{G JO 9dBql[OA 





‘CHANILNOO—SLIOA 002¢ OL dA—SUALSTAUAV DNINLHDYIT 


439 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 


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ea ee ee ee Sc ee ee ee A re ee 














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nee Lee TO 4dosoc eae eet ‘ON "980 








‘dHONILNOO—SLIOA QOLG OL dA—SHALSTNYV YDNINLHDIT 








ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


440 


9V6GL ON “280 = LHGGL “ON °389 

O8697 “ON “38D = T8697 “ON “780 

iver OND) -GLL0Y ON 46) 
NOILV.LS ANI'T 


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o1v UviseIp oyisoddo ur uMOYS si04soITy 


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JUSTIN SUI}VUIOI[Y eITM-oo1y,y, osevyd 
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Ta stato WO eddy, Jo suoroouu0) 


19697 ON 209 | 








441 


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LIGHTNING 


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ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


442 


bIL9b “ON “LVD 
UALSAYAV ANIT “dd 


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443 


ARRESTERS 


LIGHTNING 


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L¢6S4 ‘ON ‘LVD 9IL9F “ON “LVD 
YALSTAUV ANIT ‘d's aaLSAaUV ANIT ‘d'L 







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ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


444 


887SZ “ON “LVO 
YaALsSAUAV ANIT 


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445 


ARRESTERS 


LIGHTNING 














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ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


446 











OGEST 00028-1008 900LF OSFL 000L8-L00GES SOOLP 
CcIIL 00068-T00L6 POOLF GPCL 00068-L00LZG SOOLP 
OL8 000Z6-1L0066 GOOLF O86 000L6-L00GG LOOLP 
GTZ 0006G-TOOLT OOOLF G08 00066-TOOLT 6669P 
GLG OOOLT-TOSET 8669F 0S9 OOOLT-TOSST L669P 
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447 


LIGHTNING: ARRESTERS 


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$2/01 000F7/ 





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$Z/0A 0099 


A Ch) 


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‘S}IMOITD ¢,.A,, popunosisuy) L0 Byfoq ssevyd-sory, 10J 


i 
tx 
CO 


esistance Multigap Lightning Arresters 


‘“W) Circuits—Continued 


for Three-phase Delta or Ungrounded 


Dimensions of Alternating Current Graded Shunt R 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 












Fern =a: 
ar 









Ey ee i ill 


25000 Volts 
Cot No. 4700: 





0000 Volts 
I99 


a 
COL.NO.AC 


V UNIT 


LETTERS ON DIAGRAMS SHOW WHICH CYLINDER OF EACH UNIT IS CONNECTED 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 449 


=a 
Poses BPO er eet oat pa es 
paree es) Gis 


C0 
: TH 





1 Sea tat = 
qu Se cence ae a 


FIIOOO Volts 
Qot. No 47005 














| Be Cun AE ) 
a, hi eats ce 
Sn cal 


Bisweaa0: 


450 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Dimensions of Alternating Current Graded Shunt Resis- 
tance Multigap Lightning Arresters for Three-phase 
Grounded ““Y”’ Circuits 


A. 3B 
Cre) 
S000$c00%,55 


@000 
00@00° 
9000 77 4 


. V UNIT 
Letters on Diagrams Show which Cylinder of Each Unit is 
Connected 


Rare 





iy 258. Approre 
| 








si 
x 


6600 Volts 
Cot No 46992 









easanarore| [17 
| 





h_ahtol 
I 

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ca 
ea 








| 






cell i 












/0000 VO/ts 
Cot. No. 46994 
Fig. 231. 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 451 


Dimensions of Alternating Current Graded Shunt Resis- 
tance Multigap Lightning Arresters for Three-phase 
Grounded “Y”’ Circuits—Continued 


24 Approre 






= 
| 

| 

| 

| 


= -- — — 
UL 


l 


er pes “3 
—— 


] 


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LJ 
a 
fo] 








~ / 5000 Volts 
Cok wa 26998 Coad. Vo. 46996 


Peagapprox + 


f Sad 





20000 Volts 
Cot V0 47000 


Fig. 231. 


Dimensions of Alternating Current Graded Shunt Resistance Multigap Lightning Arresters 


for Three-phase Grounded ‘“Y’’ Circuits—Continued 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Etna 





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Cot.No 47004 


25000 Volts 
Cot. Wo.87002 


tome 


—\27£4ation 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 


my 
oe@0 
8 8 
poet 
° O° pet 
Us oy = 
Oe es 
oO 
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9 3 
<© = 88 





355000 
Cod 


hole Ss 
NO 47006 


Letters on Diagrams Show which Cylinder of each Unit is Connected 


453 


De nZols 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


454 





L 
ve 


ZAL | L|AGT| 006 | 0009 | G8898 
“Al CAG sae® HC Cie Me peias ban ae OO9F | OFE9L 


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455 


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pall une! MOR) Aeeol Ae 


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£8) 808] 98 
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0006 P1418 
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8S69F 
LE69P 
9S69P 
GE69P 
VE69P 
SE69P 
6S69P 
IS69P 
OS69F 


‘ON 
O70) 





456 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Disconnecting Switches for Use with Alternating Current 
Lightning Arresters 


Cat. No. Voltage A B C D E F G H 





76433 15000 | 18 | 16 9 6| 933! vs | 4%/11% 
76666 25000 | 24°) 21°) 12 9) 4274) 4416 (4 


76668 30000 | 80 | 27 | 18 | 10 | 15 i¢ | 6%|19% 











76670 45000 |, 34 | 31.) 14 | 11 19% te [7 | Q1ye 


76672 70000 | 44 | 41 | 16 | 18 | 238% | 4% | 8 | 295% 





76674 | 90000 | 51 | 88 | 16 | 18 | 29] 414 | 8 | 374, 
76675 | 110000 | 60 | 57 | 18] 15 |36%4| 44 |9 | 44,5 





Hooks and Handles for Use with Disconnecting Switches 





Cat. No. Max. Volts Length in Feet 
65849 15000 4 
65850 45000 8 
65851 70000 12 


65852 410000 Tihs 


LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 457 


Disconnecting Switches for Use with Alternating Current 
Lightning Arresters—Continued 


eat 








| 
| 


ae ee 





i 
} 


L-G 
Disconnecting Switch for 15000 to 4500 


Oo 


Volts 


y| | 
/$ | ” 
pe et eee, 
— 4é— +1 Coto. 76400 
Disconnecting Switch for 2500 Volts 
Fig. 233—Continued 





498 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


FOR USE ON SECONDARIES OF CONSTANT CURRENT 
TRANSFORMERS FOR ARC LIGHTING SYSTEMS. 


Cat. No. Rating of Transformers. No. Required. 


47558 25 light 
47559 35 light 
47560 50 light single-circuit 


47561 75 light single-circuit 
47562 100 light single-circuit 
47577 100 light multi-circuit 





Dee eee 


FOR USE ON SECONDARIES OF MERCURY ARC 
RECTIFIER SYSTEMS. tT 





Cat. No. Lights Capacity Volts 
58959 12 1100 
58960 25 2300 
58961 50 : 4600 
58962 15 6900 
58961 100* - 4600 


ea ee ee ee a eee 
*Multi-circuit—two arresters required. 
t+tArresters Cat. Nos. 58959 to 58962 inclusive are also suitable for use on 
other D. ©. Series Arc Systems. 
Barriers for use with Horn Type Station Arrester, Cat. No. 47564. 


RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ADJUSTING THE GAP 
OF HORN ARRESTERS. : 


sa ee ee a ens eee 
Voltage of Circuit; Gap in Inches G |Voltage of Circuit} Gap in Inches G@ 


1100 VA 4600 oA 
1500 he 6900 A 
2300 A 9200 uv 
3200 ae 





LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 459 


HORN LIGHTNING ARRESTERS FOR CONSTANT CURRENT 
INCANDESCENT CIRCUITS. 


Cat. No. Arrester Kw. Capacity of Trans. Secondary Amperes 





47558 
47563 
47563 
47563 
47563 
47563 


OX 


Ne 


47560 
47558 
47558 
47563 
47563 
47563 


On 


SUSU St St St 
Sy Seong Baek res 


47562 
47560 
47560 
47559 
47558 
47558 


47561 
47561. 
47560 
47559 
47559 


47562 
47562 31.0 
47561 31.0 
47560 31.0 
47560 31.0 


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SIDTP WO NARDTPW ARM MURWH 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


460 





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INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSTALLING ALTERNAT- 
ING CURRENT ALUMINUM LIGHTNING 
ARRESTERS. 


ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 


The design of the aluminum arrester is based on the 
characteristics of a cell consisting of two aluminum plates 
on which has been formed a film of hydroxide of alu- 
minum, immersed in a suitable electrolyte. This film is 
formed on the aluminum plates by a series of chemical 
and electro-chemical treatments at the factory. 

Valve Action. Up to a certain critical voltage this 
hydroxide film has the property of insulating, or rather 
opposing the flow of current and is, therefore, closely 
analogous to a eounter-electro-motive foree. Up to this 
eritical voltage only a small leakage and charging current 
ean flow, but during any rise above this voltage the cur- 
rent flow through the cell is limited only by the actual 
resistance of the electrolyte, which is very low. The 
action is comparable to that of the well-known safety 
valve of a steam boiler by which the steam is confined 
until the pressure rises to a given value, at which point 
the valve opens and releases the excess pressure. This 
action of the aluminum cell is also closely analogous to 
that of a storage battery on direct current. Up to about 
two volts per cell, impressed, the storage battery, when 
charged, opposes an equal counter-electro-motive force, 
shutting off the flow of current; but for voltage above 
this value the current is limited only by the internal 

463 


464 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


resistance of the cell. This characteristic makes the 
aluminum cell ideal as a means of discharging abnormal 
potentials, or surges in electric circuits. It practically 


Lightning 


One Set of 


Showing Roof Entrances to Station and 


for 35,000 Volt Aluminum 


Lightning Arrester Tower. 


Arresters Disconnected. 


Horn Gap Installation 
Schenectady Power Co., 


Wall Entrances to 


236. 





Arresters, 


Fig. 


prevents the flow of current at operating voltages, but 
instantly short circuits such abnormal portions of a po- 
tential wave, or surge, as would be dangerous to the in- 
sulation of the system. 


465 


ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 


A volt-ampere-characteristic-curve of the aluminum 


eell on alternating current is shown in Fig. 237. 


The 


It 


data for this curve was taken with an oscillograph. 


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COSTLY 






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BERR ER SEERSRaRBeee Eee DSnSan 
elias A BURR ROSE eSeey) 


H 7159/8 
a BLS RIRGGR CASA S 
PEPER eee . 
PELE Gere Peet 


Ti Ch SETS Ea TE PSY SBE ES OS nD’ 4m me el 
SSS Pa ee DB MO de ee 
belies el te olol is tl a ede oe fet pela belt lee dete betebs bed site fetter or | 
DGS oe eee Bos fae OSS Aaa en eee a ee eo OOP 


should be noted that the critical voltage, alternating 


This cut gives the 


discharge rate only up to 5 amperes, in order to better 


illustrate the normal and critical voltage points. 


current, is slightly above 340 volts. 


Above 


466 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


this value the discharge rate depends almost entirely 
upon the internal resistance of the electrolyte. This 
resistance is such that at double the normal operating 
voltage, or 600 volts per cell, the current discharge is 
six hundred, to one thousand amperes for a brief time. 
This rate of discharge represents a quantity of electricity 
several times greater than the quantity liberated by an 
ordinary induced lightning stroke. 

Condenser Action. Besides the valve action described 
above there is another characteristic of the cell of great 
importance. The thin insulating film of aluminum 
hydroxide between the conducting aluminum, and the 
conducting electrolyte acts as a dielectric and the cell, 
therefore, is an elecstatic condenser. A condenser of 
this type makes an ideal path for high frequency light- 
ning discharges. With these arresters, for instance, 
10,000 eyeles, which is not an unusual frequency for 
hghtning disturbances, would discharge almost 100 
amperes without any rise in voltage. 

Due to this capacity, these aluminum arresters cannot 
be connected permanently across alternating voltage. 
The charging current at normal frequency (about .d 
amp.) would in time heat the electrolyte. In every 
case, therefore, spark gaps set to are over at slight in- 
crease of voltage, insulate the arrester from the line. 

Film Dissolution. Another characteristic of the 
aluminum cell is the dissolution of a part of the film 
when the plates stand in the electrolyte, and the cell is 
disconnected from the circuit. The film is presumably 
composed of two parts; one part is hard and insoluble, 
and apparently acts as a skeleton to hold the more 
soluble part. When a cell, which has stood for some 
time disconnected, is reconnected to the circuit, there is 


ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 467 


a momentary rush of current, which replaces the part of 
the film which has dissolved. All electrolytes dissolve 
the film, the extent of the dissolution depending upon 





Fig. 238. Cross Section of Aluminum Lightning Arrester. 


the length of time the film is in the electrolyte, the 
electrolyte used, and its temperature. It is necessary to 
charge the cells from time to time to prevent the initial 
rush of dynamic current causing trouble. By keeping 


468 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


the films formed at all times, the initial rush of current 
is prevented, and the ultimate temperature rise in case 
of continued discharge of the arrester 1s minimized. Th- 
ability of the arrester to take care of discharges lasting 
for any considerable length of time, therefore, depends 
upon the condition of the arrester film. When the cells, 
in commercial use, are allowed to stand for not more 
than a day or two, the film dissolution, and initial cur- 





Fig. 239. Parts of One Leg of 15,000 Volt Aluminum 
Lightning Arrester. 


rent rush is negligible. Suitable means are provided 
with the arresters for connecting them directly across 
the line. This is a very simple operation, and thus the 
film is kept in good condition. 

In very warm climates it is sometimes advisable to 
take special precaution to keep the cells normally cool. 

Design. The aluminum lightning arresters for alter- 
nating current circuits from 1,000 to 110,000 volts con- 


ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 469 


sist essentially of inverted aluminum cones, placed one 
above the other in stacks, and insulated with a vertical 
spacing of about .3 inch. An electrolyte partially fills 
the space between adjacent cones, so forming aluminum 
eells connected in series. The stack of cones with the 
electrolyte between them is then immersed in a tank of 
oil. The electrolyte being heavier than the oil remains 
between the aluminum cones. The oil improves the insu- 





Mig. 240. Tank, Cones and Stand of 4,600 Volt Three-Phase 
Aluminum Lightning Arrester for Non-Grounded 
Neutral Systems. 


lation between cones, prevents evaporation of the solu- 
tion and, due to its heat absorbing capacity, enables the 
arresters to discharge continuously for long periods, a 
very valuable feature of these arresters. The tanks are 
of steel with welded seams. 

The general arrangement of the cells is shown in 
Figs. 238-239-240. 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 





Fig. 241. 


60,000 Volt Horn Gap—Charging Position. 





Fig. 242. 


60,000 Volt Horn Gap—Disconnecting Position. 


ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 471 


Location of Arrester. The location and arrangement 
of an aluminum lightning arrester installation depends 
greatly upon the station layout. In general, the arrester 


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¥ pata Wig 
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~20S1C/O1?7 


a9 
ob 


/, Tl? tor lochin 
«660 fig Gages Opert 


Fig. 248. Method of Locking Horn Gaps. 


should be installed as near as possible to the apparatus 
or station to be protected. The ideal arrangement would 
be to have the tanks and horn gaps installed as a com- 


472 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 





Fig. 244. 6,600 Volt Aluminum Lightning Arrester for 
Three-Phase Non-Grounded Neutral Systems. 


plete unit just inside the station. For lower voltage 
equipments this is feasible, as the arcing at the gaps is 
not severe even in abnormal cases. Above 27,000 volts, 
this practice is usually questionable, and it is recom- 


ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 473 


mended that the horn gaps be installed outside the build- 
ing, with leads tapping the line near its entrance to 
the station. The tanks, cones and transfer device should 
be installed inside of the station in a suitable compart- 





Fig, 245. 12,500 Volt Aluminum Lightning Arrester for 
Three-Phase Non-Grounded Neutral Systems. 


ment. This requires the use of either wall or roof en- 
trance bushings for the connecting wires. The object of 
placing the horn gaps outside of the station is to isolate 
any are from the station apparatus. 


474 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


_ The horn gaps for high voltage (see Figs. 241-242-243) 
are supported on a 2 in. pipe framework which is so 
designed that they can be mounted on either wooden or 
steel towers, or if desirable on the roof of the station, 





Fig. 246. Aluminum Lightning Arrester for 35,000 Volt Three- 
Phase Non-Grounded Neutral Circuits With Horn 
: Gaps Mounted Indoors. 


or on suitable brackets on the outside wall of the station. 
They should be so located that the pipe and lever, by 
which they are operated, can be brought down in a place 


ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 475 


convenient for the operator, and if possible where he can 
observe the arcing at the horns during discharge. It 
is also advisable to have the transfer device, and horn 
gaps operated from the same place so as to reduce the 
work of charging to a minimum. The horn gaps for 
lower voltages (Figs. 244-245) are sent complete for 
mounting inside the station. 














Wig. 247. Aluminum Lightning Arrester Installation for 110,000 
Volt Three-Phase Non-Grounded Neutral System, 
Showing Horn Gaps on Roof, Roof Entrances 
and Tanks Inside of Station, 


Wherever horn gaps are mounted inside the building 
sufficient clearance should be allowed over them. The 
exact distance to be allowed depends upon the voltage, 
and the nature of the material or apparatus under 
which the horns are installed. If there are cables, wires, 
buses, or any material which would be damaged by fire, 
considerable distance should be allowed. On the other 
hand, if there are only concrete and iron beams of the 
floor or roof, a much smaller clearance can be allowed, 


476 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Normally there is no appreciable are at the gaps, but in 
abnormal cases where the film has been allowed to get 
out of order, the are might be of considerable size. 
Where there are no buses or inflammable apparatus, 
the following are the minimum clearances from the tops 
of horns to be allowed: 


Up ston? 2oUsvolis Ser tence eee eee a uit 


7.251 itor 16/100 volts. ae ee es 3 ft. 
16,101¢to 87500 volise eee 4 ft. 
37,901 to 60,000 volts.. 9.) guess 6 ft. 


Above 60,000 volts, the horn gaps should never be 
placed indoors. 

In accordance with the above, standard equipments 
of 27,000, and below are designed as complete units to 
be installed inside the station, while for those above 
27,000 volts the horn gaps should preferably be installed 
outside the station, and the tanks inside. Exception 
to this rule can be made where there is sufficient space 
in the station over the gaps. Figs. 236-246, 247, 248 
and 249 illustrate a few methods of installing arresters. 

The objection to installing the tanks outside of the 
station results from the freezing of the electrolyte in 
cold climates. The electrolyte used in these arresters is 
not injured in any way by freezing, but when frozen 
the internal resistance of the arrester is increased about 
twenty times, and hence its discharge rate is decreased a 
corresponding amount. In other words, at double po- 
tential the discharge rate would be reduced from about 
600 amperes to 25 amperes. The film characteristic up 
to the critical voltage remains practically unchanged 
when frozen. Under certain conditions the arrester 
tanks can be installed out of doors, and special bushings 
are designed for this service. 


ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 477 















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Fig. 248. Aluminum Lightning Arrester Installation for 60,000 
Volt Three Phase Non-Grounded Neutral System, Show- 
ing Horn Gaps on Roof, Wall Entrances and 
Tanks Inside of Station. 














Mig. 249. AJuminum Lightning Arrester Installation for 60,000 
Volt Three-Phase Grounded Neutral System, Showing 
Horn Gaps on Wooden Poles, Wall Entrances 
and Tanks Inside of Station, 


478 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


OUTDOOR INSTALLATION. 


Only arresters of the outdoor type, with special water- 
tight bushings and metal covers, should be installed out 
of doors. Care must be taken to see that the bushings 
are correctly assembled to be water-tight. In hot coun- 
tries the heat of the sun should be guarded against by 
means of a sun roof over the arresters. The arresters 
may be either mounted on a platform between poles, or 
on a platform near the ground and surrounded by a 
fenee. The position of the arresters should preferably 
be such that their operation can be observed by the 
station, or substation attendant. While installing arrest- 
ers out of doors, great care must be taken not to let the 
wooden, and fibre parts of the cone stack become wet in 
ease of rain, and to keep dust from the cones and electro- 
lyte. 

GAP SETTING. 


The setting of the horn gaps of aluminum arresters is 
affected by several operating conditions as follows: 

First; it 1s influenced by the wave-form. It is always 
the peak value, and not the effective value of potential 
that starts the discharge. Consequently if the genera- 
tor wave has a sharp peak, the gap will spark over fora 
low effective value of potential, and, vice versa, if a wave 
shape is flat, it will require a high effective voltage to 
start a spark across the gap. 

Second; the spark potential is less for stations located 
in high altitudes and the horn gaps therefore require 
higher settings. 

Third; the spark potential is affected by the local con- 
ditions of the circuit; for example, the nearness of the 
horns to other metallic objects, the tendencies to resonate 
with some higher frequency, ete. 


ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 479 


In consideration of the above variables, it is 1mpos- 
sible to give a definite gap setting for different circuits 
of the same voltage. The best that can be done is to 
give a list of the gap settings which we have found give 
out good protection on any circuit, and give a second 
list of settings which should be considered as mini- 
mum values for circuits operating under favorable con- 
ditions of the three factors described above. 

The following are the settings of the horn gaps for 
the various voltages. Installations having no attend- 
ants should have gap setting somewhat greater than sta- 
tions having attendants. 


Voltage Gap Setting— Usual Limits Short Circuit Gap 
2500 USO ee 0 
3300 Ome LO me OG 0 
4600 30% to 45” 0 
6600 (oO aL eOUS 0 
10000 40” to  .60” 10 
12500 40/2 TOL 10 
15000 be Uuae COs Bs bole aLO 
17500 OO aloo. 10 
20000 COO Ca LOsm 044 10 
25000 Ty eqn, AR 10 
30000 SY irae Ses 10 
30000 ADAG LS aierre AAG O ae 10 
40000 40S to mel 0 10 
45000 VS aes, “lee 10 
50000 Usa LO wes U0 10 
60000 3.00” to 4.50” 10 
70000 Ay etOue Os LO 10 
80000 6.00” to 9.00” 10 
90000 user CO. palOOw 10 
100000 Os eton le VOM 10 


110000 10.00” to 15.00” 10 


ee 


480 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


In making a new installation of the aluminum arrest- 
ers the operator should first set the gaps at the higher 
values given in the table, until the cells are thoroughly 
formed as described. Since the gaps may be closed for 
several minutes with only a slight wear on the aluminum 
plates, the operator while making the daily tests should 
note the gap length at which the ares across the gaps 
break when resetting horns to their normal position. 
The normal setting of the gaps should be about double 
this value, or otherwise the horns will be unable to extin- 
cuish the charging current of the arrester, if once started. 
Furthermore, the arresters should be carefully watched 
for several weeks after the new setting is made to be sure 
that some slight, harmless, continuous surge on the line 
will not cause the arrester to discharge continuously. 


CONNECTIONS AND WIRING. 


To obtain the best protection, the path from line to 
arrester, and arrester to. ground, must be the shortest and 
most direct possible. 

For wiring high voltage arresters the use of copper 
tubing is advisable. There are several reasons for this. 

In all hghtning arrester installations it is necessary to 
provide a path to the lightning arrester, and ground with 
as little impedance as possible. In order to achieve this 
purpose, rather large wires with long bends and turns 
would have to be used. It is quite well known that high 
frequency lightning disturbances are confined to the out- 
side surfaces of the conductors, penetrating but little 
toward the center, hence by using either flat strip, or 
tubing, we are able to secure the advantage of a large 
conductor, namely, a large surface, but at much less cost. 


ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 481 


Copper tubing has the advantage over either strip or 
solid conductors in, that it is easily supported, requires 
fewer insulators, and is therefore the cheapest to install. 
It also presents a very neat appearance. 

This copper tubing is so designed that when the wiring 
is complete, all joints are flush, all sharp bends are elim- 
inated, and there are no points where corona, or brush 
discharge will take place. 

As installations vary so much in their layout, it is 
impossible to provide copper tubing for wiring the ar- 
resters completely. Hence, there are listed convenient 
parts which may be selected as soon as the lightning ar- 
rester layout has been determined. 

The parts listed consist of straight sections, bends of 
various angles, tees, terminals, and connectors for join- 
ing the various parts together. All of these parts, except 
the straight tubing, are tinned at the joints, and it is 
necessary only to join the sections and apply to the out- 
side a heat sufficient to sweat the sections together. 


INSTALLATION OF DISCHARGE ALARM. 


When a discharge alarm is to be ‘installed, the auxiliary 
cell must be connected in series with the ground connec- 
tion. This should be done without increasing the length 
of the ground connection more than absolutely necessary. 
The ground wire, or pipe framework, between the ar- 
rester and alarm cell must be insulated for about 1000 
volts. This can be usually done with either wood blocks, 
or fibre bushings. 

The magnet bell, or relay, with resistance rods in se- 
ries should be connected so as to shunt the eell to 
ground; the resistance rods next to the cell. The bell, or 


482 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


relay, may be located at any place convenient, but the 
resistance rods should be near the arrester (see Fig. 
250). 

To place the alarm cell in service, fill the jar half full 
with the electrolyte furnished for the purpose, then pour 
in one-eighth pint of oil. After the plates have been 
replaced and before connecting in the circuit, it is best 
to place the cell across 250 volts, with lamps in series, as 
explained under ‘‘ Testing and Preliminary Charging.”’ 
If the bell does not ring well, some or all of the resist- 
ance may be short circuited. 


Cot.NO'75 986 mth be// 
rectly coqrected to 
CCE 








OO) Cotho.75487 mith relay for 
QDESTIEING QD? PUKMIBYS, 
BIPIDA Cireuwt— 


Spsvuloted 4or'/000 velts 


Seark Gap 
Fram beoring of ___~ (aah ase! 
transfer Jerlcoe 


Fig. 250. Connections of Discharge Alarm for Use With 
Aluminum Lightning Arresters. 


ASSEMBLING AND FILLING CONES, 


The stacks of cones are shipped, assembled and packed 
in iron tanks. Just before they are installed they should 
be carefully unpacked, and thoroughly blown out with 
dry air to remove any dust which may have collected 


ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 483 


during packing and shipment. If it should be necessary 
to disassemble the cones, care should be taken not to 
touch the film surface with the hands. The cones may 
be held by the rim, however, as this part of the cone 
is never in contact with the electrolyte. 

The cones should be filled with electrolyte as described 
below, but this should not be done until everything is in 
readiness to put the arresters into service on the line. Not 
more than two days should be allowed to elapse between 
the time of filling in the electrolyte, and putting the 
arrester into service, otherwise the electrolyte, standing 
in the cells without voltage, will dissolve the film some- 
what and make it necessary to do considerable ‘‘ forming 
up’’ when the arrester is finally put into service. 

Great care should be exercised to keep the electro- 
lyte and cones clean and free from dust. Impurities in 
small quantities cause an extra current to flow when 
charging, and hasten the wearing out of the cones. A 
considerable amount of impurity will cause such a cur- 
rent as to prevent the arrester from operating properly. 
Impure electrolyte usually shows itself gradually, and 
produces a large are at the horns each day when the cells 
are charged. 

Use only glass, earthenware, rubber or aluminum 
vessels in handling the electrolyte. Use such precau- 
tions as wiping the mouth of the carboy when it is 
opened, washing out the rubber tubes of the cone filler 
with water, and covering the cones if it is necessary to 
leave them standing outside of the tanks. Keep the 
tanks covered. 

The cells are only partially filled with electrolyte, 4 oz. 

r 14 pint should be placed in each cell. This can easily 
be done with the aluminum cone filler shown in Fig. 251. 


484 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The ecarboy should be raised about two feet higher 
than the stack of cones, so that the electrolyte will 
siphon in rapidly. A piece of glass tubing inserted in 






Carboy 7or 
Llectrolyte 


LPPITUNG 


vesse/ for 
Arresler 


Wer l/7ow 


Cat No.75484. 


Electrolyte should be siphoned from carboy into tube ‘‘A” un- 
til its surface has risen to the top of tube “B.” Any overflow 
may be caught from bottom of tube “‘B” in a glass vessel and- 
poured back into carboy. 

Electrolyte should be released from tube ‘‘A’”’ into cones by 
pinch-cock, “C.2 

It is extremely important that the same quantity of electrolyte 
be put into each cone. 

Hence. care should) be taken ators: 

“a” Have pinch-cock “C’” closed while “DD” is open and vice- 
versa. 

“b’’? Have electrolyte in “A” as high as top of tube “B” and 
no higher before opening ‘‘C.” 

“ce” Move tube “H’ systematically, i. e, just before allowing 
electrolyte to run into cone or just after. This is to avoid skip- 
ping a cone or giving one a double quantity of liquid. 

igates Misvile KCuapeey TMM. 


ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 485 


the end of the rubber tube leading into the earboy will 
prevent this tube from floating on the electrolyte. The 
pinch cock on the tube from the filler to the cones must 
be near the filler, otherwise the amount of electrolyte 
measured will not be correct. 

It is important that each cell contain the same amount 
of electrolyte, so as to have equal distribution of voltage 
over the arrester. Great care should be taken that no 
cell is omitted, or any filled twice. Some good system of 
routine should be followed to guard against this danger. 
Care should be taken in filling not to wet any of the 
wooden, or fibre parts used in supporting the cones. The 
filling tube should be always inserted half way between 
the supporting rods and pushed well in. 


TESTING AND PRELIMINARY CHARGING. 


After the entire stack of cones has been filled, and be- 
fore placing it in the tank it is desirable to test out each 
cell to see if it has been properly filled and ‘to give it a 
preliminary ‘‘charge.’’ This should be done by eon- 
necting 250 volts A.C. to each cell successively with a 
bank of lamps in series. Sufficient number cf lamps 
should be used to limit the current to 2 amperes when 
the aluminum cell is not in cireuit. When put across the 
cell, the lamps may first burn bright, and if so should 
be allowed to dim down. Jn doing this care should be 
taken not to allow the electrolyte to get warm. If the 
lamps do not burn brightly at first it is an indication 
either that the cell has not been filled with electrolyte, 
or that the film is already formed, which ean easily be 
determined by noting the spark when making contact. 

If 250 volts is not available 500 volts may be used, 


486 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


testing two cells in series. If only 125 volts is available 
an indication of whether the cells are filled or not may 
be had, but charging is not fully accomplished and spe- 
cial precautions must be taken when first connecting the 
arrester to the line as later explained. With 125 volts 
use only one testing lamp. If alternating current is not 
available, direct current may be used, but in this case 
reverse the polarity while testing each cell. This testing 
and charging usually takes about 10 seconds per cell. 


FILLING THE TANKS WITH OIL. 


When the stacks of cones have been filled and tested, 
they should be lowered into the tanks and centered, being 
sure of good contact between the base and tank. The 
tanks are then filled with oil to within three inches of 
the top. Care must be taken to prevent the oil from 
washing out the electrolyte from between the cones. 
The electrolyte is only slightly heavier than the oil and 
a stream of oil hitting the side of the stack will wash 
the electrolyte out. Oil may be either pumped, or 
siphoned in through a pipe running to the bottom of the 
- tank, or may be poured gently into the top cone. Oil 
from standard iron barrels contains iron scale, which 
must be removed. It is therefore necessary to filter the 
oil by passing it through thin muslin or doubled cheese 
cloth. 


PLACING THE ARRESTERS IN SERVICE. 


The arresters when shipped from the factory have the 
film completely formed on each separate aluminum cone. 
They have, however, never been operated assembled, and 


ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 487 


it is advisable to use certain precautions when first plac- 
ing them in service. 

If the preliminary charging is correctly done, using 
approximately 250 volts per cell, as described, and if not 
more than two days have elapsed since this charging, 
the arresters can be put in service by operating the de- 
vice provided to short circuit the horn gaps, charging 
the cells as described under ‘‘Daily Charging.’’ If only 
125 volts were used for testing, or if the cells have been 
standing for a longer time than two days, or if, having 
once been in service, a period of two weeks has elapsed 
without charging arresters, it is not advisable to throw 
full potential on them at once. With the potential about 
14 normal, start the ares across the horn gaps, opening 
the gaps again immediately. This operation should be 
repeated about a dozen times as described under ‘‘ Daily 
Charging.’’ Then raise the voltage to 34 normal value, 
and again start a momentary discharge across the gaps 
about a dozen times. Finally raise the potential to full 
normal value, and again start the momentary ares sev- 
eral times. If the cells are in poor condition, the first 
are at the gaps for each step in the potential may be 
white, flaring, and rise half way, or even to the top of the 
horns before it is extinguished, thus showing consid- 
erable current in the initial reformation. Each succes- 
sive are should show less flaring, and rise less on the 
horns. Finally the discharging current produces, in 
daylight, a bluish snappy are, a spark, which does not 
rise much on the horns. 

If the internal connections in the tank are poor or, if 
a cell has not been filled, there will be a rumbling sound 
in the tank if the potential is sufficient to start an are in 
the oil. In such a case it is necessary to withdraw the 


488 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


faulty stack of cones, and correct the trouble before pro- 
ceeding with the tests. The usual cause of such trouble 
will be a cell not filled with electrolyte or, wet around the 
fibre separators between cones. If the impressed po- 
tential is not sufficient to start an are in the oil there 
wil be no dynamic are at the horn gaps; there will be 
only a feeble spark when the gaps are diminished to the 
sparking length. 


DAILY CHARGING, CARE, INSPECTION AND REPAIRS. 


The dissolution of the films on the aluminum cones 
when they are left in the electrolyte is brought out in 
the discussion of the characteristics of the arrester. 

The charging operations in the ease of the arresters for 
grounded cireuits consists merely in simultaneously 
closing the three horn gaps so that the full potential 
across the cells will cause a small charging current to 
flow and form the films to their normal condition. 

With non-grounded neutral circuits, the charging 
operation is as follows: First, the horn gaps of the ar- 
resters are momentarily closed, and then opened again 
to normal position, thus charging the cells of the three 
line stacks. Second, with the horn gaps still in normal 
position, the connections of the ground stack of cones, 
and one of the line stacks are interchanged, thus making 
one of the charged stacks the ground leg of the arrester. 
This is accomplished in the low voltage arresters (1000 to 
7250 volts) by reversing the position of the single-pole 
double-throw switches (these switches must always be 
in opposite directions). On the higher voltage arresters 
the position of the transfer switching device (Fig. 252) 
is reversed, Third, the first operation is repeated, so 


ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 489 


charging the first stack of cones which was originally 
the ground leg. The complete charging operation takes 





Fig. 252. Transfer Device and Two Tanks of 35,000 Volt 
Aluminum Lightning Arrester, 


but a moment and should be performed daily. The 
operation is valuable, not only to keep the films in good 
condition, but also to give the operator some idea of the 


490 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


condition of the arrester by observing the size of the 
are which forms during charging. It is recommended 
that this daily charging of the arrester be made part of 
the station routine, and that records be made of the time 
of charging, and the size and color of the are which 
rises on the horns. Too large, or too small an are indi- 
eates that there may be an abnormal internal condition 
which should be investigated before trouble occurs. 
This will not only increase the operator’s interest in 
the arrester, but when once he becomes familiar with the 
proper operations, the test gives an indication of the 
internal condition of the cells. ; 

The tanks have sufficient heat storage capacity to 
allow the arrester to discharge continuously for half an 
hour in case of a recurrent discharge. Jf such an abnor- 
mal condition should ever occur when the disturbance 
lasts over half an hour the arrester, and also the affected 
circuit should be disconnected. 

After an arrester has been subjected to a discharge 
long enough to heat it up, great care should be exercised 
subsequently when it is again put under the daily test. 
The hot electrolyte has a much greater dissolving effect 
on the film, than cool electrolyte. If the electrolyte be- 
comes very warm it is better to take the same precaution 
in the next test, as is taken when first connecting the 
arrester to the circuit. 

Should it ever be necessary to take the cells apart for 
repairs, the oil and electrolyte can be used over again, 
but it is desirable to change the electrolyte if it has been 
in service for a long time. It is recommended that 
before each hghtninge season the stack of cones be raised 
in the tank, and a few of the top cones inspected to deter- 
mine their condition, : 


COMPRESSED AIR IN RAILWAY WORK. 


The advantages of compressed air for railway 
power plants and in ear houses, and repair shops are 
only beginning to be understood, and are not yet fully 
appreciated. The larger companies have become familiar 
with it through their experience in operating air brakes, 
and those that have modern shop equipment have found 
it convenient and reliable for hoisting purposes, and in 
the operation of wood and iron working machinery. In 
some plants, too, it is used to clean motors and dynamos, 
the backs of switchboards, and cushions for car seats, but 
the extent and variety of the service it is capable of per- 
forming has not occurred to the average run of super- 
intendents and master mechanics. The educational 
process in this field seems to be very slow, and while 
there is generally a vague idea that compressed air may 
be employed to advantage for cleaning machinery, yet 
those troubles experienced in the operation of electrical 
apparatus are not always recognized as being due to an 
accumulation of dirt and dust, which might thus be re- 
moved. In fact, if it were generally understood that 
troubles and annoyances so often experienced in the 
operation of the power plant and rolling stock were at- 
tributable to their real cause, and that compressed air 
could be so readily obtained, there is no doubt that the 
intelligent manager would install a suitable plant for 
this purpose. 

Much of the delay in the adoption of compressed air 
for cleaning machinery has probably been caused by the 

491 


492 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


cumbersome, and complicated compressing appliances 
that were employed for a long time; but this objection 
no longer exists, as simple, durable and compact air 
compressors suitable for this purpose are now obtain- 
able. The electrically driven compressor is by far .the 
simplest, and most desirable for railway shops, and it is 
always available, by simply closing a knife switch. The 
operator does not need to know anything whatever about 
the compressor, and as skilled attendance is not required, 
pneumatic apphances may be entrusted to ordinary la- 
borers about the ear shops and power houses, and the 
same class of help can be utilized for using many pneu- 
matic tools. There are many little things about a shop 
that can be done when compressed air is available, and 
which effect small economies in themselves, but aggre- 
gate a considerable sum in the course of a year. 
The flexibility of the system is, of course, greatly in its 
favor, and the employment of portable motor-driven 
compressors in large shops has made it possible to utilize 
pneumatic appliances in all parts of the works where 
current is obtainable. The subject is a fruitful one for 
superintendents who desire economy of operation, and at 
the same time endeavor to maintain a high degree of 
efficiency in equipment. 


EFFICIENCY OF TROLLEY WIRE.t 


“No department of electric railroading has received less 
attention than the transmission line, and particularly 
the trolley wire. In the construction and maintenance 
of an electric railroad no expense is spared to obtain 
power-station equipment of the highest efficiency while 
the trolley wire, which is just as essential for operation, 
is generally purchased with no restrictions on the quality 
of material. 

The entire development of electric traction has taken 
place within the past twenty-five years, and this short 
period of time has witnessed an almost fabulous advance 
in the improvement of power stations and rolling stock. 
Higher voltages, greatly increased electrical output, 
heavier and more efficient cars capable of increased 
speeds have been noticeable on all lines. The increasing 
demands of traffie and the necessity of economical oper- 
ation have foreed the development of machinery of high 
efficiency. In spite of the great advance along all other 
lines, the trolley wire of today is not essentially differ- 
ent from that at first installed. 

At the present time there are over 25,000 miles of elec- 
tric lines in the United States. Calculating the value of 
the trolley wire in use at the current price and assuming 
the average weight per mile as 2,000 pounds, this shows 
a total investment of $8,000,000. This wire is the artery 
of the entire system, and any injury to it cripples the 
operation of the road, and decreases thereby the efficiency 
of the expensive generating equipment, and yet an ex- 
~~ +Abstract of a paper read before the Division of Industrial Chemists and 
Chemical Engineers of the American Chemical Society, December 31, 1908, 


The author, Carl F. Woods, is connected with the Arthur D. Little Labora- 
tory, Boston, Mass. A493 


494. ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


amination of the records of roads operating many hun- 
dred miles of track shows that a broken trolley wire is 
almost a daily occurrence. 

Numerous attempts have been made to specify the 
necessary characteristics of trolley wire, some of which 
have failed because of an incomplete understanding of 
the demands upon the material, and many more on ac- 
count of ignorance of the processes of manufacture, and 
the defects inherent to these processes. The determina- 
tion of the qualities necessary in an efficient material 
must always be preceded by a thorough understanding 
of the conditions which it must meet, and by a careful 
study of the material itself, and the limitations imposed 
by manufacturing processes. 

The trolley wire in general use in the United States 
is made from hard drawn copper, the sizes and shape 
varying considerably, but circular wire having a diam- 
eter of 0.364 inches, which correspond to No. 00 on the 
Brown & Sharpe gauge, is perhaps the most common 
form of construction. Ordinary soft copper does not 
have sufficient strength for this service, so that reliance 
has had to be placed upon either steel, bronze, or hard- 
drawn copper. While steel wire has the requisite 
strength, it is subject to severe corrosion from the 
weather, and has vastly greater electrical resistance. The 
silicon, phosphorus, and other bronzes of a similar nature 
possess great strength, but all have the serious defect of 
much lessened conductivity. Soft copper wire has a 
strength of about 34,000 pounds per square inch, while 
hard-drawn wire can be made having a strength of as 
high as 67,000 pounds per square inch. Hard-drawn 
wire, although possessing some serious defects, has there- 
fore been accepted as being much better than the other 
materials available for the purpose. 


EFFICIENCY OF TROLLEY WIRE 495 


In standard construction, trolley wire is suspended 
in spans of 100 feet on straight lines, and in shorter 
spans on curves, the distance depending upon the radius 
of the curve, local conditions, ete. These spans are sup- 
ported by ears which vary in construction, but for the 
most part depend upon a fixed mechanical grip of the 
wire. In the earlier construction, ears were soldered to 
the wire, a process which annealed the hard-drawn 
copper with the consequent reduction in tensile strength, 
but this practice is now rapidly becoming obsolete. The 
wire, therefore, is subjected to the pull of its own 
weight, to the extraordinary stresses of ice and snow, 
and to severe pounding from the trolley wheel. In addi- 
tion the wheel passing along the wire gives to it a wave 
motion, which proceeds along the wire until an ear, or 
other fixed support is reached, where the wave is sud- 
denly checked, with a consequent sharp upward bend, 
followed by a series of bending stresses diminishing in 
force as the wave motion dies out. On a busy line, where 
cars are operated on a small headway the wire is sub- 
jected to practically a continuous effect of this nature, 
and in addition to this must be capable of carrying a 
large amount of power in order to diminish the outlay 
in feed wire. 

To give efficient service under the conditions above 
noted, trolley wire must possess the following qualities: 
Conductivity, tensile strength, flexibility, homogeneity, 
and toughness. 

Each of these qualities is essential, and no one of them 
can be increased beyond a certain point without a pro- 
portionate reduction of one or more of the others. For 
example, certain wires have been made from alloys of 
eopper and tin which have high tensile strength, great 


496 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


toughness and homogeneity, but are lacking in flexibility 
and have a conductivity only half that of pure copper. 
On the other hand, by proper drawing, wire can be 
made very homogeneous, flexible and tough, but lacking 
in tensile strength, the conductivity being unimpaired. , 
To recapitulate, high conductivity is necessary for eco- 
nomical operation; tensile strength to withstand the ab- 
normal stresses; flexibility to enable stringing and to 
allow the wire to adjust itself under strains and blows; 
homogeneity that the stresses may be uniformly distrib- 
uted along the wire, and toughness to withstand kink- 
ing, wrenching, and slow distortion without giving way. 
Attention naturally turns next to the methods of de- 
termining to what extent wire possesses these essential 
properties. The determination of conductivity is very 
readily and accurately made with a Wheatstone bridge, 
or one of the several appliances based upon the same 
principle which are especially adapted for trolley wire. 
Tensile strength may be determined in a testing machine 
of suitable capacity, but owing to the nature of copper 
the elastic limit cannot be determined by a drop of the 
beam, as the metal apparently yields quite steadily, up 
to the breaking point. Numerous conflicting figures are 
in print regarding the yield point of copper, but as a 
stress and strain diagram shows a nearly perfect curve, 
the actual elastic lmit can only be accurately deter- 
mined by applying increasing loads for a definite length 
of time, and measuring the permanent set in each case. 
Such a procedure is obviously too complicated for com- 
mercial testing, so that the elasticity of the wire has to 
be judged by other means. Under ordinary cireum- 
stances, power to resist the effects of twisting is not 
necessary for conducting wire, but the torsional strength 


EFFICIENCY OF TROLLEY WIRE 497 


measures indirectly, but accurately, two of the most im- 
portant mechanical properties that a wire can possess, 
namely, homogeneity, and toughness. In a tensile- 
strength test, the maximum tensile load is largely a fac- 
tor of the cross-sectional area, and the amount of work 
which has been put into the hardening of the surfase. 
This test will detect inferior drawing, or inherent weak- 
ness of the copper, but it gives no idea of the power 
of the wire to resist distortion, nor of defects, such as 
oxide seams which run lengthwise of the wire, and do 
not have a cross-sectional area of sufficient size to affect 
the breaking strength. Under a torsional strain, how- 
ever, such defects are quickly noted. If the wire con- 
tains an oxide seam as above spoken of, the twisting will 
open it up, and at once lessen the strength of the wire. 
If the wire is of unequal hardness, the twists will tend to 
bunch up in the softest portion and very noticeably show 
this spot. Inferior copper not only shows a very low 
number of turns, but splinters and slivers of metal ap- 
pear on the surface which in very bad wires fall off to 
such an extent that a paper held beneath the sample 
during torsion will show a considerable collection of 
copper fragments. Non-homogeneous copper, due 
either to impure metal, or uneven drawing, will show a 
ereat difference in the number of turns which different 
specimens will stand without breaking, while high-grade 
metal which has been carefully drawn twists evenly and 
uniformly, with no slivering, and shows little difference 
in the number of turns on different specimens. It is, 
therefore, desirable to make at least three torsion tests, 
whereas one tensile test is sufficient to obtain an accurate 
measure of the strength. 

In the appended table No. 1 are given a series of tests 
which clearly illustrate the four general divisions into 


498 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


which the trolley wire of commerce may be divided by 
reason of difference in physical qualities. Specimens A, 
B, C, having tensile strengths of 5,500 pounds or higher, 
and torsion tests averaging about thirteen, represent wire 
lacking toughness which has been given a high tensile 
strength by drawing. Specimens D, E, F, having ten- 
sile strengths around 5,300 pounds, and torsion tests of 
about fifteen, are wires lacking both toughness and sur- 
face hardness. Specimens G, H, I, having tensile 
strengths of about 5,100, but torsion tests of approxi- 
mately twenty-three, are typical of wires in which the 
torsion has been obtained at the expense of tensile 
strength, while specimens X, Y, Z, with tensile strengths 
over 5,400 pounds, together with torsion tests of twenty- 
six, and even higher, represent the best trolley wire 
which can be made at a reasonable price. 
TABLE NO. 1. 


Sample Diameter Torsion Turns Tensile Load Conductivity 
No. Inches. in 10/7. Lbs. Wh 


Aes 0.865 14 5,650 98.4 
12 


DB Vent 0.364 ie 5,000 98.6 


Peron wh it 18 5,500 98.2 


Dees! 0.365 18 5,260 98.6 


EFFICIENCY OF TROLLEY WIRE 499 


Sample Diameter Torsion Turns Tensile Load cena 
Lbs. ‘Os 


No. Inches. in 10/7. 


te 0.365 14 5,270 98.7 
A tO 0.364 14 5,370 98.7 
Pe 0.364 21 5,070 98.9 
ane 0.364 29 5,110 98.4 
Socal, 0.365 24 5,210 98.4 
Moet 0.364 27 5,400 98.3 
son 0.364 es 5,490 98.4 


Hi RaE eds: 0.364 25 5,090 98.2 


500 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Of these four classes there is again a distinction in, 
that the first two represent copper of an inferior grade, 
which cannot be made the equal of the wires of the !ast 
two classes by any treatment in the rod mill. On the 
other hand, wires of the last two classes are both made 
from excellent copper, although specimens X, Y, Z are 
wires greatly superior in all respects to the preceding 
three. It is interesting to note that all of these wires 
have practically the same conductivity, which shows 
clearly the fallacy of attempting to value trolley wire 
by conductivity and tensile strength alone, as is so fre- 
quently done. 

It is therefore necessary not only to obtain high-grade 
copper, but also to secure the proper balance between 
tensile strength and torsion, as these two properties are 
correlated, and an increase in one, beyond a certain 
point, results in a proportionate decrease of the other. 

The preceding remarks have shown the conditions 
under which wire must work, and the qualities which are 
necessary to successfully meet these conditions. Atten- 
tion must now be turned to the process of manufacture 
to determine how these qualities may be obtained, and 
what defects of such processes injure the finished wire. 
For this purpose a brief review of the industry is neces- 
sary. 

In the refining furnace the copper, which is already at 
least ninety-six per cent pure from the blister furnace, 
is oxidized by air until a large part of the impurities 
have been removed, and copper oxide is formed in con- 
siderable excess. ‘Cuprous oxide is readily soluble in 
molten copper, and acts as a powerful oxidizing agent by 
giving up its oxygen to any metallic bases present, so 
that an excess of oxide insures the presence of all metal- 


EFFICIENCY OF TROLLEY WIRE 501 


lic impurities in the oxide form. The excess cuprous 
oxide is then removed by burying a piece of green wood 
in the molten mass and covering the surface with char- 
coal. This process must be stopped within very narrow 
hmits, as over-reduction will throw the impurities back 
into the metallic state. 

The influence of cuprous oxide has been studied by 
Mr. Patch of the Detroit Copper Company, Dr. Ed- 
ward D. Peters, Jr., who is without doubt one of the 
best authorities on the metal in this country, and by the 
well-known German authority, W. Hampe, among many 
others. Many of the impurities in copper have been 
found to be much more injurious when present in the 
metallic state, than when in the form of oxides, and one 
effect of the cuprous oxide, as above mentioned, is to 
convert these impurities into the comparatively inert 
and harmless form, and so improve the quality of the 
metal. In large quantities, however, it is known to 
harden copper, while at the same time causing it to be- 
come short or brittle, and according to Hampe the pres- 
ence of one per cent produces a diminution in tough- 
ness. 

It is therefore possible to treat low-grade metal so 
that it will have high conductivity, although the large 
amount of cuprous oxide present greatly reduces the 
toughness. In purchasing copper for drawing trolley 
wire the manufacturer insists upon conductivity, but as 
a rule cares little for the other physical qualities, as he 
can obtain sufficient tensile strength by drawing. Lake 
copper possesses both high conductivity and excellent 
mechanical qualities, but this kind of copper costs from 
one-eighth to three-quarter cent per pound more than 
electrolytic. Why the latter should be inferior to Lake 


502 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


is difficult to explain, but experience shows that the gen- 
eral run of commercial electrolytic copper is by no 
means uniform in physical qualities, and as a general 
thing is distinctly inferior to Lake for wire-drawing 
purposes. The cheaper price of electrolytic, results in 
its use by many manufacturers, although they frequent- 
ly understand that the wire will be inferior. 

The refined copper comes to the rod mill in bars weigh- 
ing about 200 pounds each, approximately ten of which 
are used in the manufacture of a mile of wire. These 
bars frequently have ridges along the sides, due to faults 
in casting, and the surface is often covered with a layer 
of oxide. These bars are heated in a furnace until suf- 
ficiently soft for rolling and are passed through a series 
of rolls diminishing in size, until a rod of the proper 
diameter is obtained. The rod is then cooled and drawn 
through dies, the rods being connected by brazing. The 
dies give the wire a dense, hard exterior coating which 
increases its tenacity. As the strength obtainable is al- 
most a direct factor of the work expended upon the wire, 
the smaller the size, the greater the tensile strength per 
square inch, so that the strength of the trolley wire is 
readily varied by changing the size of the rod, and the 
number of dies. 

One of the most serious defects occurring to wire at 
this point is from ridged bars, as described above. Or- 
dinarily the bar will not be sufficiently heated to dissolve 
the copper oxide on the surface, so that as the softened 
bar enters the first passes of the rolls, the ridges are 
lapped over, enclosing the oxide scale. The subsequent 
passes, and the drawing through the dies obscure this 
flow almost entirely, but it remains a serious menace to 
the toughness and the resistance to wear of the copper, 


EFFICIENCY OF TROLLEY WIRE 503 


as has been previously shown in remarks on the torsion 
test. 

A second cause of trouble arises at the same point 
by overheating the copper in the furnace, in which case 
copper oxide is formed on the surface, and quickly dis- 
solves through the entire bar, thereby increasing the 
oxide content, and tending toward the production of 
brittleness. Both of these dangers can be avoided by 
careiul selection of the bars, and by proper regulation 
of the temperature of the softening furnace. 

As the production of the hard surface from drawing 
is at best a rather delicate operation, careless handling, 
uneven welding of the rods, and unequal temperature of 
the wire while passing through the dies will all produce 
noticeable defects in the quality of the finished wire, so 
that care throughout the mill is absolutely necessary for 
the best results. 

It appears, therefore, that the most efficient wire must 
possess not only high conductivity, but the maximum 
torsion, and tensile strength possible in commercial cop- 
per, and that to obtain this it 1s necessary, first, to use 
high-grade copper and to prevent an excess of cuprous 
oxide entering it at any stage of the manufacture, and, 
secondly, to select as perfect bars as possible, and to ob- 
serve extreme care in every treatment through which 
they pass. The question at once arises, can such wire be 
purchased at a commercial price? The writer must ad- 
mit that this high-grade wire cannot be obtained at the 
ordinary market price, but requires the payment of a 
premium of one-half cent per pound. To produce wire 
of this grade consistently, the wire manufacturer must 
use the higher-priced Lake copper, and observe unusual 
care in its treatment, so that he is justified in demanding 


504 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


a higher price. Experience in the use of this wire has. 
shown conclusively that it is well worth the additional 
cost. 

The appended table No. 2 gives the results obtained 
upon thirteen consecutive miles of trolley wire made 
from selected bars of Lake copper. The tests were made 
upon each mile of the wire, and the results show the 
ereat uniformity obtainable with proper care. It should 
be said in this connection that this wire was not made as 
an experiment, but was drawn by a certain wire com- 
pany as a part of a regular business contract. 


TABLE NO. 2. 


Torsion Tensile Con- 
Sample Diameter Turns in Load ductivity 
No. Inches. 10/7, Lbs. Ae 
12k 0.868 221% 5,470 99 
243/ 
2214 


ANG tere 23% 
23 





5,490 98.7 


Ogi 0.363 1934 5,400 97.8 





Ae eae 0.363 20% 5,470 98.8 





DO spegere 0.363 221% 5,450 97.8 





Gee 0.363 24 5,500 98.6 





EFFICIENCY OF TROLLEY WIRE 505 


Torsion Tensile Con- 
Sample Diameter Turns in Load ductivity 
No. Inches. 10’. Lbs. %. 


grr cae, 0.363 22% 5,420 97.8 





8 0.365 28 5,010 98.5 


Oat r 0.368 24 . 5,540 98 





LOR anes 0.363 21 5,470 98.8 





Le 0.363 22 5,490 98.8 





Ieee. 0.363 26% 5,500 98.5 





LO es 0.363 23 5,450 98.7 





The point must be kept clearly in mind, however, that 
even the best of wire is of little value if improperly 
used, and the consumer must realize that the same de- 
gree of care which he insists upon from the manufac- 
turer is essential in the handling and stringing of the 
finished wire. 


506 — ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The study of copper wire and the demands made upon 
it show the great need of a more thorough knowledge 
of this material. Owing to the minute quantity of im- 
purities which exert a marked effect upon the qualities 
of copper, a chemical analysis is too difficult for tech- 
nical purposes. The iron and steel industry is largely 
controlled today by microchemistry, and, in the same 
way, there is a future for this same practice in the cop- 
per industry. Of first importance is the careful working 
out of the copper-cuprous oxide system, with the deter- 
mination of the number of phases occurring, and the 
physical properties incident to different alloys. Doubt- 
less much of this information is already in the hands of ~ 
the copper refiners, but it remains for chemical engineers, 
and chemists interested in industrial materials to verify 
and complete the work for the consumer. This should 
afford a good field for experiment stations, and research 
students generally. 


A NEW TYPE OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. 


Fig. 253 shows a novel type of electric locomotive 
which has been designed jointly by the General Electric, 
and American Locomotive companies for trying out a 
scheme of transmitting power from the motors to the 
drivers through side-rods, instead of by the ordinary 
methods. 

The locomotive is designed for a tractive effort of 30,- 
000 pounds at a speed of eighteen miles per hour, with 
a maximum speed of fifty miles per hour, and will oper- 
ate equally well in either direction. It has been tried 
out with temporary motors of a somewhat smaller ea- 
pacity, and the tests have demonstrated conclusively that 
the design is entirely satisfactory in every way. It is 
proposed to extend the cab over the entire length of the 
machine, when the proper motors are installed on the 
locomotive. The present cab and guards are only for 
the temporary protection of the apparatus now installed. 

One of the principal advantages found in this type 
of construction is that a motor of large diameter, and 
small air gap can be used in conjunction with small 
diameter driving wheels, and at the same time the motor 
ean be spring-supported. The same motor equipment 
ean also be used on locomotives with different diameters 
of driving wheels, thus permitting the interchange of 
equipment on freight, and passenger locomotives. This 
type of locomotive is as well adapted for operation with 
direct-current motors, as with those of the alternating 
current type. 

i 507 


008 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 





Experimental Side-Rod Electric Locomotive. 


253. 


Fig. 


009 


ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 


‘QATJOULODOTT OLIJOOT JO UOTWVASTM pue uv[gd ‘FG7 ‘SLA 


CUDNEY ATTN TIES SET WOLLSMULENDD Os SN GONYHD O14 LOIFENO 












omens oe 09 0 


ZAPSG —a ww Sonal NEEL, 7 Bi 
IN\ +2378 Nw sen EPS qf y At 
> ae SACS ae Oxy AL =e 4 


ap ees 
cf | “ 
y 2 
Pic. 


















Bae 





wa 


\ 


Ay) ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The electrical control is arranged in such a manner 
that the motors start as repulsion motors with short- 
circuited armatures, and are changed over to series-re- 
pulsion motors for the higher speeds. This arrangement 
eliminates running with a short-circuited armature on 
high voltage, and at the same time gives a high torque 
at starting. 





Fig. 255. Flexible Coupling, Partly Assembled. 


The armatures are similar to those of an ordinary 
direct-current machine with equalizer rings. They have 
multiple drum windings, with the bars soldered directly 
into the commutator segments. 

The field or stationary windings are of the distributed 
type, and are made in two sections, the exciting and the 
inducing windings. The former has the same function 
as the field winding in an ordinary series motor, while 
the inducing winding introduces the working torque 
when the motor is connected as a repulsion motor. 

All parts of the running gear, such as wheels, driving 
boxes, axles, springs, spring rigging, trucks, etc., follow 
standard steam locomotive practice, 


ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 511 


Counterweights are used on the driving wheels to bal- 
ance the side-rods, and it should be noticed that there 
are no reciprocating parts and therefore a perfect bal- 
ance can be obtained. 

An interesting mechanical feature is the flexible 
coupling inserted between the armature shaft of the 
motor, and the motor crank. This consists of a series of 
leaf springs arranged radially around the motor shaft 
and of such a strength as to carry the entire torque of 
the motor with an amount of deflection which will re- 
duce the effect of the pulsating torque of a single-phase 
alternating current motor to a minimum. The accom- 
panying plan and elevation (Fig. 254) shows the gen- 
eral arrangement, 


THE PASSING LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 


The life-like passenger locomotive, quivering with re- 
pressed energy at the station, and the massive mogul 
straining up long grades toward the backbone of a 
mountain range with the labored breathing of some 
colossal monster, thrill the imaginative spectator no less 
today than did the primitive engine when steam trans- 
portation was experimental, and before the history of the 
locomotive’s marvelous feats of speed and strength had 
been written. 

The substitution of the electric locomotive for the 
noisy, smoke-breathing monster of the rails will mark the 
elimination of a feature of transportation no less pic- 
turesque in its way than the giant clipper ship with her 
mystifying multitude of lines and her mountain of can- 
vas and the substitution of the fast passenger steamer 
for the windjammer on the ocean, and the replacing of 
the sweep-propelled barge on inland waters for the mule- 
drawn canal boat. 


THE ELECTRIC FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE. 


The economics which have resulted from the operation 
of long and heavy freight trains by one locomotive are 
not possible where heavy grades are encountered, but 
from the desire to apply the principle to as large an ex- 
tent as is practicable, additional locomotives are then 
used for the single train. When steam is worked nearly 
full stroke in the cylinder, as is usual in ascending 

512 


MISCELLANEOUS 513 


grades, the limitations of the boiler are soon reached, 
and it is necessary to reduce speed, and steam freight 
locomotives ascending 2 per cent grades seldom exceed 
six to eight miles per hour. Even when three very large 
consolidation engines are used on heavy grades under 
present conditions, the most economical trainload is 
hauled at these very low speeds, and a large number of 
locomotives is required for the service. Grade operation 
is expensive, therefore, not only on account of the large 
amount of fuel burned, but also because a large equip- 
ment is necessary, and the cost of maintenance of so 
many heavy locomotives is a serious item. The electric 
locomotive, either direct current or alternating current, 
can exert a constant horsepower and tractive force over 
a much larger range than the steam locomotive, and its 
operation is only limited in speed by the heating of the 
armature and field coils. 

As now constructed, it is safe to say that a given 
tractive force in an electric locomotive can be applied at 
a speed three times that of an equal force in the steam 
locomotive, and electric locomotives having the same 
weight on drivers can ascend grades with heavy trains 
at speeds of 20 to 24 miles per hour. The electric loco- 
motive weighs much less per horsepower, as the whole 
weight is on the drivers, and the constant haul of dead 
weight on the trucks of both engine and tender of steam 
locomotives is saved. The fuel cost of this item alone 
in operating heavy grades must result in a large credit 
to the economy of the electric motor. It is reasonable to 
expect that the cost of repairs of electric locomotives 
will be much less per mile, or ton mile, and the expense 
for maintenance will be further reduced by the fact that 
fewer units are required for a given traffic. If the in- 


514 ELECTRIC RaILROADING 


terest, depreciation, maintenance, and cost of operation 
of three large steam freight locomotives is compared with 
that for one electric locomotive which will perform 
equivalent work on heavy grades, it will make such a fa- 
vorable showing as to at least compel further investiga- 
tion, and no doubt this will soon be followed by a com- 
. plete demonstration in practice. 

It is for the above reasons that the operation of freight 
trains by electricity on the steam lines will be first ap- 
plied on the heavy grades, and several railroads have al- 
ready ordered estimates for electric operation for such 
points on the line as are difficult of operation. An in- 
stance of this is the proposed electrification of Proctor 
Hill, on the Duluth Missabe & Northern, and the grades 
on the Cascade Mountains, both on the Great Northern 
and the Northern Pacific. The probabilities are that the 
Pennsylvania Railroad will change its alignment over the 
Allegheny Mountains, thus avoiding the horseshoe curve 
and using electric locomotives. Such an alignment 
might have heavier grades than the present one, and yet, 
be operated by electricity more economically. 


WHY STEAM ROADS ADOPTED ELECTRICITY. 


If it is believed by some that sentiment, or a desire to 
be very modern, has made the steam roads anxious to 
adopt electricity as part of their motive power, they are 
very much mistaken. The reason why the advisory and 
executive forces of steam roads have moved to utilize 
electricity as an adjunct to their present systems is 
simply, because the loss of traffic they would otherwise 
sustain made it an imperative business measure. The 
local traffic of all large steam roads within a short dis- 


MISCELLANEOUS 515 


tance of New York City will be handled in the next two 
years by electric means. To become duly impressed 
with this view of the case it is only necessary to visit the 
neighborhood of the New York Central above 42d street, 
or 33d street and 9th avenue, where the gigantic station 
of the Pennsylvania Railroad will be constructed. Mil- 
hons of dollars have been spent already in making 
excavations 75 feet deep over an area equal to 15 or 20 
city blocks. The cost of this real estate with the houses 
standing was enormous, but they have all been torn 
down to make way for the new electrically equipped 
station, electrically lit tunnels, and electrically operated 
ears. A sum, variously estimated to reach from $40,- 
000,000 to $60,000,000, is to be spent by the above roads 
respectively, in order to retain, and further develop 
their business as carriers of the public, and transporters 
of freight. 

An enumeration of a few instances outside of New 
York where electricity has been formally recognized as 
the most economical form of energy for use over long 
distances will prove interesting. The longest run of this 
kind is from Indianapolis, Ind., to Lima, O., by way of 
Dayton, an interstate line nearly 200 miles in length. 
The average speed is about 30 miles an hour and the fare 
114 cents a mile. The next long run by electricity is 
made by the Lake Shore Electric, from Cleveland to 
Toledo, a distance of 120 miles. The run is made at an 
average of 25 miles an hour. As regards other lines of 
the interurban class, follow 22 belonging to the middle 
West, and about five in New York State, whose lengths 
vary from 30 to 80 miles. The lines at present in oper- 
ation in New York State are as follows: The Hudson 
Valley, 60 miles long; the Rochester & Eastern Rapid, 


516 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


44 miles long; the International (Buffalo to Oleott), 37 
miles; the Albany & Hudson, 37 miles long, and the 
Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville, 33 miles long. It 
makes very little difference whether these roads are dis- 
paragingly entitled only trolley roads or not; they are 
and have been winning their way steadily to the front. 
This fact may be accepted as an axiom in the new world 
of railroad work, which has developed in the past ten 
years, that wherever an electric road parallels a steam 
road the steam road loses money. It is just as good as a 
passenger and freight carrier; it can run just as quick- 
ly, and it can stop at a variety of points convenient to 
those patronizing the road without losing much on its 
time schedule. This fact, hammered home by the expe- 
rience and receipts of electric roads, has been duly di- 
gested by the better class of thinkers of the steam 
traction systems. They have felt compelled to save them- 
selves from the loss of a vast amount of transient, and 
local business in the near neighborhood of large cities 
by adopting the weapons of their competitors. The New 
York Central reaches out 35 miles beyond New York 
City, the Pennsylvania will reach out over 50 miles 
from New York City—with its new electric passenger 
and freight service. 

The last lesson in railroading was not taught by the 
older pupil, but by the newer. Steam roads, it seems, to 
save themselves are rapidly becoming electric roads. 


CENTRALIZED CONTROL OF POWER PLANT AUXILIARIES, 


In recent power plant contruction, a valuable im- 
provement is the concentration of controlling apparatus 
for auxiliaries on special panels of the main switch- 


MISCELLANEOUS 517 


board. Thus far the principle of centralized control— 
which is remote control when viewed from the other end 
of the line—has been applied mainly to oil-switch cir- 
cuits; but, with the increasing use of small motors for 
pump driving, valve operation, fan running, machine 
service, coal and ash handling, air compressor work and 
the like, it is becoming more and more important that the 
man in charge of the main switchboard shall be able at 
any moment to start or stop a given piece of machinery. 
It has taken power plant designers a long time to break 
away from the idea that the only place for a motor switch, 
is within three or four feet of the motor itself. The cost 
of controlling from a distance is slight in comparison 
with the increased flexibility of operation and, in cases 
where electromagnetic switches are not needed, it is 
simply a matter of a little extra wiring. 

In these later plants, switchboard panels have been 
provided for the control of a considerable variety of 
auxiliaries. The lighting circuits of oil storage com- 
partments, coal pocket subdivisions, pump rooms, pipe 
tunnels, power house machine shops, boiler and engine 
rooms, the motor circuits for the crane, if that is elec- 
trically driven; circuits for pumps, fans and other aux- 
iliaries as suggested above are all suitably controlled by 
primary switches on the auxiliary panels. Such an ar- 
rangement in no way prevents the location of parallel 
switches close by the equipment, and it is a wise move, 
considering the broadening requirements of power house 
operation, to duplicate controls in certain instances. 

It ought to be possible in any plant where the high- 
pressure steam piping is controlled at certain points by 
motor-driven valves, to operate these valves from the 
switchboard as well as from the boiler room floor. The 


518 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


location of engine stop buttons on the switchboard, as 
well as at other points, is an example of the increase in 
flexibility which is approved by modern designers. 

Installation of motor switches for starting and stop- 
ping coal conveyors, and crushers is certain to save labor 
in the long run, for these motors are almost always lo- 
cated in rather inaccessible spots, in comparison with 
the balance of the machinery. Even if they cannot be 
started from the main switchboard, on account of the 
inconvenience of rheostatic control on panels already 
erowded, a good deal of extra wear and tear may be 
saved by installing main knifeswitches of the quick- 
break type in these circuits, and distributing from the 
main switchboard. In the same way the switching of 
special hghting circuits at the main board tends to save 
needless waste of current in out-of-the-way places, par- 
ticularly if pilot lamps are used in connection with the 
switches. 

These improvements add very little to the already 
extraordinary cost of large modern switchboards, but 
they increase the operating flexibility of the plant, and 
open the way toward the stoppage of many small leaks. 
In some eases, special panels are now devoted entirely to 
the support of instruments reading voltage at remote 
points, current and power in different feeders taken in 
groups. Steam gages, indicators and other instruments 
are being paneled also, close by the main board, for there 
is really no logical reason why the measurements of 
power .plant energy in the varied stages of its produc- 
tion should not be co-ordinated. 

Intelligent operation demands a knowledge of all the 
existing conditions, and if present indications hold, the 
day is not far distant when the operating executive of 


MISCELLANEOUS 519 


every new plant of importance will have all the phys- 
ical data, steam, electrical, thermometric, flue gas in- 
dications, ete., concentrated in the few feet of space 
formerly devoted exclusively to electrical measurements. 
In many cases, the complication of distantly operated 
electromagnetic switches will not be needed, but the 
main control must, eventually, lodge at or near the 
switchboard. Scattered switches and instruments may 
supplement the grouped units, but the latter will be 
none the less essential. The working out of all the de- 
tails will naturally vary with local conditions. 


INCREASING THE PROFITS OF INTERURBAN RAILWAYS. 


Profits may be increased upon an interurban railway 
in but two ways—by increasing the traffic or by reduc- 
ing the cost of operation. Both of these methods are 
constantly being attempted by progressive roads, but 
there is little doubt that increase of traffic offers greater 
opportunities for success than do lessened expenses, un- 
der present conditions. Very few electric interurban 
lines are operated at more than 20, or 25 per cent of 
their full capacity, figuring on the maximum number of 
single ears which can be safely forced over the route in 
a given time. A double tracked line with cars operat- 
ing at a maximum speed of 50 miles per hour, ought to 
be able to pass individual train units on each track at 
five-minute intervals in perfect safety with suitable op- 
erating rules, but the traffic seldom warrants anything 
less than a 15-minute interval on through interurban 
routes. The extended use of the multiple-unit system of 
control in interurban equipments is a potential advan- 


520 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


tage that has as yet not been widely utilized in doubling 
or trebling train capacity. The great majority of inter- 
urban trains are composed of single ears, and the full 
resources of a road equipped with train control will not 
be drawn upon until the single car gives way to the mul- 
tiple-unit train running upon the shortest headway pos- 
sible with the single ear itself. 

The cost of operation of an interurban line is so much 
lower per mile of track than the cost of running a great 
city system, that an increase of traffic on the former is 
relatively more profitable, and there is every incentive 
to develop new business on a line which possesses the 
percentage of reserve carrying capacity which char- 
acterizes most interurban systems. The gross earnings 
per mile of track on a city road may be four or five times 
those of the interurban, but in such event. the operating 
cost is likely to be six or eight times as great on the 
urban lines. Maintenance of way, taxes, and wages per 
mile of track or per car mile are vastly greater on the 
city system, notwithstanding the larger car mileage and 
extent of the urban road. Any increase in profitable car 
mileage on an interurban road is therefore bound to be 
a powerful factor in augmenting the profits. Interurban 
fixed charges remain about the same for an enormous 
increase of traffic, and the extra cost of carrying an 
additional carload of passengers is small in proportion. 

These are some of the reasons why it is getting to be 
more profitable to make special efforts to increase inter- 
urban earnings than to reduce interurban expenses of 
operation. Of course, one would not for a moment coun- 
sel neglect of expenses, but it is a question if these are 
not down pretty close to bed rock on many systems. A 
possible source of waste on an interurban line is dead 


MISCELLANEOUS pal 


mileage. In case extra cars are to be run over part of 
the system, from a car house to some objective point 
where a large return traffic is anticipated, it is usually 
a better plan to allow these extras to carry passengers on 
the outward as well as the inward trip, than to shut 
them up, and refuse fares in the direction of their desti- 
nation. The steam railroads are giving a great deal of 
thought to dead mileage, and while the conditions on 
electric railways are in nogsense as burdensome in this 
respect, it is well to remember that every idle movement 
of a car consumes power, and costs heavily in wages in 
proportion to the distance covered. 

At the power house end of the line, equipment is under- 
going radical improvements, and the steam turbine, and 
gas engine have both opened up a field of promise in 
respect to power economy on small roads. Perhaps the 
most notable advantage of the turbine for a small road 
with a poor load factor is its light load economy, while 
the gas engine plant offers low fuel consumption, even 
in small sized installations. There is also room for im- 
provement in transmission and distribution losses, in- 
cluding the perennial rail bond question. On small 
roads, the distribution of car labor is frequently faulty, 
and in efforts to approach an operating ratio of 50 per 
cent, the arrangement of conductors’ and motormen’s 
time is well worth studying. Repair shop methods on 
small roads—and any interurban line is essentially a 
small road in comparison with a large city system— 
are often full of expensive makeshifts. It is also some- 
times forgotten that high-schedule speed means fewer 
cars in service for a given interval. 

Established interurban railways cannot create traftic 
where none exists, and there is a reasonable limit to 


522 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


advertising. But this is a growing country, filled with 
almost unparalleled national resources, and opportuni- 
ties. The interurban line of today is no longer a dis- 
jointed link between two adjacent city systems—it is an 
actual railroad, without regard to the motive power used, 
and is certain to become more and more influential in the 
community served, as time goes on. There is much to 
learn from steam railroad experience, and the tendency 
of the steam and the electric line to supplement each 
other is so marked, that the new business-getting meth- 
ods of the older systems are in many cases applicable to 
the newer. ; 


THE PRESERVATION OF WOODEN TIES AND POLES. 


The firm of Himmelsbach Freres, of Fribourg, Baden, 
has been conducting a large number of tests on methods 
of preserving wood, particularly for use as railway ties. 
This company has furnished 20,000 wooden ties impreg- 
nated with coal tar for the railway through the Simplon 
tunnel, and has obtained fairly good results with this 
process of preservation. The method employed consists 
in passing the ties into hermetically sealed ovens, 
where they are heated, and the air exhausted until the 
pressure falls to twenty-four inches of mercury or less. 
Ten minutes afterwards the coal tar, previously heated, 
is introduced, the exhaustion within the oven being 
maintained during this time. The oven is then main- 
tained at a temperature of about 105 degrees centigrade 
by means of a steam coil placed in or beneath it. Heat- 
ing continues for four hours, after which the air pres- 
sure is increased until it reaches two atmospheres, 


MISCELLANEOUS 523 


Practically the same process is followed in treating 
pins, and other wooden articles. This method, while not 
difficult, is not as simple as another now being tried, 
and known as kyanization. It depends upon the anti- 
septic properties of bichloride of mereury. It has been 
shown that a solution containing one part of bichlo- 
ride of mercury to 10,000,000 of water, arrests the de- 
velopment of micro-organisms, and one part in 3,000,- 
000 suppresses them. The process consists in preparing a 
two or three per cent solution of the bichloride of mer- 
cury in water in large vats of concrete. The wood to 
be treated is plunged into these vats, and allowed to 
rest there for some time. Chemical tests of wood thus 
treated show but a slight penetration of the solution. 
It seems to be limited to the exterior surface, but as the 
preserving action of this treatment lasts for a consider- 
able time, it is possible that the penetration is really con- 
siderably deeper, and although too dilute to be indi- 
eated by chemical tests, yet it is sufficient to prevent 
decay. This process was used some years ago, and a 
table is given showing the results obtained on various 
railways. On some of these roads poles treated in this 
way were erected in 1877, of which from thirty to 
thirty-eight per cent were in use in 1903. Poles erected 
in 1883 to 1886, had from eighty-two to ninety-seven 
per cent still in service. Of poles erected in 1891 and 
1892, all are still in good condition. The postal and tele- 
graphic department of Bavaria has had poles treated 
with bichloride of mercury in service for thirty years, 
and has found from statistics that the average life of 
such poles is seventeen and one-half years. 


524 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


TREATMENT FOR ELECTRICAL SHOCK. 


Writing in the Engineer and Mining Journal, Rich- 
ard Lee says: 

There is a difference of opinion as to whether alter- 
nating-current, or continuous-current shocks, under cer- 
tain conditions, are the more dangerous. It is well to 
remember, however, that a high-potential alternating 
circuit should not be regarded as safe to handle, even 
when the current has been shifted off, until it has been 
connected to earth and so practically discharged. 

A live wire may often be handled without inconven- 
lence when standing on an India-rubber mat, or on a 
dry-wood floor, but it is a safe rule to avoid contact 
with any part of an electrical apparatus, without 
thoroughly understanding what one is doing. The symp- 
toms of an electrical shock are as follows: (1) Stop- 
page or weakening of the action of the nerves; (2) con- 
traction and stiffening of the muscles; (3) stoppage 
or weakening of the action of the heart. The contrac- 
tion of the muscles is what prevents the victim from 
letting go after grasping a live wire. 

A person who has received a severe shock may be- 
come unconscious, and seemingly cease to breathe. None 
of these symptoms necessarily indicates death, and un- 
der no circumstances should remedial measures be aban- 
doned until a physician has pronounced life extinct. 
It is most likely that many victims have been given up 
for dead after an electric shock, when the continuous 
application of further remedies might have restored 
them. A number of cases are on record where subjects 
who have received severe shocks have been unconscious 
for more than 30 minutes without the slightest discern- 


MISCELLANEOUS H20 


ible heart action, and still have recovered because of 
the artificial respiration applied. 

In treating a victim, it is advisable to elevate the 
body and legs so as to send the blood to the brain, which 
action may prove a remedy for syncope, a condition 
often resulting from such a shock. If the heart has 
stopped beating, it is sometimes possible to start that 
organ again by applying a series of smart taps over the 
chest. The treatment should also be accompanied by 
drawing the arms in and out, so as to aid, or rather force 
artificial respiration. A number of authorities also 
advocate hypodermic injections of ether and alcohol 
beneath the skin, so as to distend the arteries, and help 
the heart action. In trying to disengage a man who is 
in contact with live metals, it 1s well to remember that 
dry clothing is a good insulator, and the best plan is 
to seize the victim’s arm on the clothing and try to pull 
him away. Under no circumstances should the res- 
ecuer touch the bare skin, or take hold under the armpits 
where the clothing is apt to be damp. 


SUGGESTIONS FOR RESUSCITATION FROM APPARENT DEATH 
FROM ACCIDENTAL ELECTRIC SHOCKS. 


Augustin H. Goelet, M. D., in The Electrical World: 
The urgent necessity for prompt and persistent efforts 
at resuscitation of victims of accidental shocks by elec- 
tricity 1s very well emphasized by the successful 
results in the few instances recorded. In order that the 
task may not be undertaken in a half-hearted manner, 
it must be appreciated that accidental shocks seldom 
result in absolute death, unless the victim is left unaided. 


526 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


for too long a time, or efforts at resuscitation are sus- 
pended too early. 

In the majority of instances the shock is only suffi- 
cient to suspend animation temporarily, owing to the 
momentary and imperfect contact of the conductors, 
and also on account of the indifferent parts of the body 
submitted to the influence of the current. It must be 
appreciated also that the body under the conditions of 
accidental shocks seldom receives the full force of the 
current in the circuit, but only a shunt current, which 
may represent a very insignificant part of it. When an 
accident of this nature occurs, the following rules 
should be promptly adopted and executed, with due 
eare and deliberation: 

1. Remove the body at once from the circuit. by 
breaking contact with the conductors. This may be ac- 
complished by using a dry stick of wood (which is a 
non-conductor), to roll the body over to one side, or 
to brush aside a wire, if that is conveying the current. 
When a stick is not at hand, any piece of dry clothing 
may be utilized to protect the hand in seizing the body 
of the victim, unless rubber gloves are convenient. If 
the body is in contact with the earth, the coattails of 
the victim may be seized with impunity to draw it away 
from the conductor. When this has been accomplished, 
observe Rule 2. 

2. Turn the body upon the back, loosen the collar 
and clothing about the neck, roll up a coat and place it 
under the shoulders, so as to throw the head back, and 
then make efforts to establish artificial respiration (in 
other words, make him breathe), just as would be done 
in case of drowning. To accomplish this, kneel at the 
subject’s head, facing him and seizing both arms, draw 


MISCELLANEOUS 521 


them forcibly to their full length over the head, so as 
to bring them almost together above it, and hold them 
there for two or three seconds only. (This is to ex- 
pand the chest and favor the entrance of air into the 
lungs.) Then earry the arms down to the sides and 
front of the chest, firmly compressing the chest walls, 
and expel the air from the lungs. Repeat this maneu- 
ver at least sixteen times per minute. These efforts 
should be continued unremittingly for at least an hour, 
or until natural respiration is established. 

3. <At the same time that this is being done, some 
one should grasp the tongue of the subject with a hand- 
kerchief or piece of cloth to prevent it slipping, and 
draw it forcibly out when the arms are extended above 
the head, and allow it to recede when the chest is com- 
pressed. This maneuver should likewise be repeated at 
least sixteen times per minute. This serves the double 
purpose of freeing the throat so as to permit air to en- 
ter the lungs, and also, by exciting a reflex irritation 
from forcible contact of the under part of the tongue 
against the lower teeth, frequently stimulates an invol- 
untary effort at respiration. If the teeth are clenched 
and the mouth cannot be readily opened to secure the 
. tongue, force it open with a stick, a piece of wood, or 
the handle of a pocket knife. 

While this is being done a physician should be sum- 
moned, who, upon his arrival, can best put into prac- 
tice Rules 4 and 5 in addition to the foregoing, should 
it be necessary. ; 

4. Forcible stretching the sphincter muscle control- 
ling the lower bowel excites powerful reflex irritation 
and stimulates a gasp (inspiration) frequently when 
other measures have failed. For this purpose the sub- 


528 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


ject should be turned on the side, the middle and. in- 
dex fingers inserted into the rectum, and muscles sud- 
denly and forcibly drawn backward toward the spine. 
Or, if it is desirable to continue efforts at artificial res- 
piration, at the same time the knees should be drawn 
up and the thumb inserted for the same purpose, the! 
subject meanwhile retaining the position on the back. 

5. Oxygen gas, which may be readily obtained at a 
drug store, if the accident occurs in a city or large 
town, is a powerful stimulant to the heart if it can be 
made to enter the lungs. A cone may be improvised 
from a piece of stiff paper and attached to the tube 
leading from the tank, and placed over the mouth and 
nose, while the gas is turned on during the efforts at 
artificial respiration. 

It is both useless and unwise to attempt to adminis- 
ter stimulants to the victim in the usual manner by 
pouring it down his throat, therefore this should not be 
attempted. 


GENERAL WIRING FORMULAE. 
FROM GENERAL ELECTRIC CO. FOR ‘‘STANDARD WIRING.”’ 


The following general formule may be used to de- 
termine the size of conductors, volts lost in the line, 
and current per conductor for any system of electrical 
distribution : 

GW: 


: D 
Area of conductor, Circular Mils= PXE? OG 


jon ae PX 
Volts loss in line= 100 xM. 


: : W 
Current in main conductors=— xT. 


1) 


D=Distance of transmission (one way), in feet. 

W=—tTotal watts delivered to consumer. 

P=Per cent. loss in line of W. 

E—Voltage between main conductors at receiving or 
consumers’ end of circuit. 

K—2160 for continuous current. 

K—2400 for single-phase, all lights. 

K—3000 for single-phase, motors and lights. 

K=8380 for single-phase, all motors. 

K—1200 for three-wire three-phase and _ four-wire 
two-phase, all lghts. 

K—1500 for three-wire three-phase and four-wire two- 
phase, motors and lights. 

K—1690 for three-wire three-phase and four-wire 


two-phase, all motors. 
029 


530 _ ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


M=—A variable depending on the size of wire and fre- 
queney used, and equal to 1 for continuous current. 

T—A variable depending on the system and nature of 
the load, and equal to 1 for continuous current. 


TABLE SHOWING THE CURRENTS WHICH WILL FUSE WIRES OF 
DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES 


. 


German 




















Gntce Diam. Copper. Aluminum, Stivers Iron. 
10 102. 330. 246.5 170, 102.3 
12 81. 236. 174.4 120.5 72.6 
14 64, 165.7 122.8 84.6 50.9 
16 Bil, 117.7 87.1 60.1 36.1 
18 AO. 81.9 60.7 41.8 Boi? 
20 So. 58.5 43.4 29.9 18, 
22 25.6 Ae 30.5 oT 12.4 
24 20, 28.9 21.5 14.8 8.9 
26 16. DANE FE AUS yes: 10.6 6.4 
28 12.6 14.5 10.7 ae 4.5 
30 10. Oe 7.6 be Sil 
32 8 1.0 5.4 ON Zo 
34 6.3 5.1 3.8 2.6 1.6 
36 +) 3.6 aed | 1.8 pak 





Values of the constant A for any particular power- 
factor are obtained by dividing 2160 by the square of 
that power-factor for single-phase, and by twice the 
square of that power-factor for three-wire three-phase, 
or four-wire, two-phase. | 

The resistance of line wire is taken as 10.8 ohms per 
mil foot. 


GENERAL WIRING FORMULAE 531 


CARRYING CAPACITIES AND DIMENSIONS OF WIRES AND CABLES. 











: " od ue 
Q H - ae) . 
= 3 M -. nO (= ong ° 2 
A 3 pel se| Ss | Ss | 8] 88 
eS ee a, = Brey al He (hee MO 
o A g D ei plea vs ty 
S iS) se gs Ay Aa 38 
o = <q a asa Ss S es A Aw 
& 3 -2 oa?) on ares wa a Ci 
S : So] 28 eed adie) Ce 
je) rad 
40 1,624 5 3 | 6.3880 4.92 18 
45 2,048 6 4 | 5.0660 6.20 21 
dl 2,583 8 6 | 4.0176 7.82 25 
57 3,257 10 8 | 3.1860 9.86 31 
64 4,106 16 12 | 2.5266 12.44 38 
72 5,178 19 14 | 2.0037 15.68 43 
81 6,530 23 17 | 1.5890 19.77 48 
91 8,284 27 2 aels2002 24.93 64 
102 10,380 82 25 .99948 31.44 80 
114 13,090 89 29 -79242 89.65 97 
128 16.510 46 30 .62849 49.99 116 
144 20,820 56 39 .49845 63.08 118 
162 26,250 65 45 .39528 79.49 166 
182 33,100 ae 53 .81846 | 100.23 196 
204 41,740 92 63 .24858 | 126.40 228 
229 52,630 110 75 .19714 | 159.88} 265 
258 66,370 131 88 .15633 | 200.98] 296 
289 83,690 156 105 .12398 | 253.48] 329 
325 105,600 185 125 .09827 | 319.74] 421 
365 133,100 220 150 .07797 | 402.97 528 
410 167,800 262 181 .06134 | 508.12] 643 
460 211,600 312 218 .04904 | 640.73} 815 
630 300,000 405 273 .08355 | 932 3 37-090 
sevey| Phe: 400,000 503 332 .02516 | 1242 >) 37-1039 
Te eal Hes 500,000 595 390 -020138 | 1553 S 61-0905 
resale SOL09 600,000 682 440 .01666 | 1863 ee 61-0991 
Swale 96579 700.000 765 488 .01488 | 2174 os 61-1071 
7 eel] BOBO SS 800,000 846 540 .01258 | 2474 a = 61-1145 
(<b) Mes 
os Pee LO92.6 900,000 924 585 .01118 | 2795 a's 61-1214 
Sool) Baby. 1,000,000 1000 630 .01006 | 3106 ° 61-128 
se ea 20857 1,100,000 1075 675 .00915 | 3416 qa A 61-1343 
- So5)) Alcs 1,200,000 1147 715 .00838 | 3727 ‘S as! 91-1148 
cont SEs 1,300,000 IWAYY 755 .00769 | 4088 3 wd 91-1195 
eee | 1304 1,400,000 1287 795 .00715 | 4848 5 = 91-124 
qv 
i ee 141355 1,500,000 1856 835 .00667 | 4658 a 5 91-1285 
os --.| 1458.6 1,600,000 1423 875 .00625 | 4968 c8 91-1826 
“ 1503.7 1,700,000 1489 910 .00588 | 5278 =P 91-1367 
See LOL Te7, 1,800,000 1554 945 .00556 | 5588 0 127-1195 
*e Sarl) AUsy Ale, 1,900,000 1618 980 .00527 | 5898 oe 127-1223 
ter 1630.2 2,000,000 1681 | 1015 .00500 | 6208 Ee 127-1554 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


532 





"8g RE 


0°06 
0°04 PL la! 
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GENERAL WIRING FORMULAE jaa 


The value of A for any particular power factor is 
obtained by dividing 2160, the value for continuous 
current, by the square of that power-factor for single- 
phase, and by twice the square of that power-factor for 
three-wire three-phase, or four-wire two-phase. 

The value of M depends on the size of the wire, fre- 
quency, and power factor. It is equal to 1 for continu- 
ous current, and for alternating current with 100 per 
cent., power-factor, and sizes of wire given in the table 
of wiring constants. 

The figures given are for wires 18 inches apart and 
are sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes, pro- 
vided the displacement in phase between current and 
E.M.F. at the receiving end is not very much greater 
than that at the generator; in other words, provided 
that the reactance of the line is not excessive, or the line 
loss unusually high. For example, the constants should 
not be applied at 125 cycles if the largest conductors 
are used and the loss 20 per cent, or more of the power 
delivered. At lower frequencies, however, the constants 
are reasonably correct, even under such extreme condi- 
tions. They represent about the true values at 10 per 
cent. line loss, are close enough at all losses less than 
10 per cent., and often, at least for frequencies up to 
40 cycles, close enough for even much larger losses. 
Where the conductors of a circuit are nearer each other 
than 18 inches, the volts loss will be less than given by 
the formule, and if close together, as with multiple 
conductor cable, the loss will be only that due to resist- 
ance. 

The value of 7 depends on the system and power- 
factor. It is equal to 1 for continuous current, and for 
single-phase current of 100 per cent. power-factor. 


534 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The value of A and the weights of the wires in the 
table are based on .00000302 Ib. as the weight of a foot 
of copper wire of one circular mil area. 

In using the formule and constants, it should be 
particularly observed that P stands for the per cent. 
loss in the line of delivered power, not for the per cent. 
loss in the line of the power at the generator; and that 
E is the potential at the end of the line, and not at the 
generator. 

When the power factor cannot be more accurately de- 
termined, it may be assumed to be as follows for any 
alternating system operating under average conditions: 
Lighting with no motors, 95 per cent., lighting and mo- 
tors together, 85 per cent.; motors alone, 80 per cent. 

In continuous current three-wire systems, the neutral 
wire for feeders should be made of one-third the sec- 
tion obtained by the formule for either of the outside 
wires. In both continuous and alternating current sys- 
tems, the neutral conductor for secondary mains and 
house-wiring should be taken as large as the other con- 
ductors. 

When both motors and lights are used on the Mono- 
cyclic System, the primary circuit should be figured as 
if all the power was transmitted over the outside wires, 
and the size of the power wire should be in the propor- 
tion to either outside wire, as the motor load in amperes 
is to the total load in amperes. Secondary wires lead- 
ing directly to induction motors on the Monocyclie Sys- 
tem should all be of the same size as for a single-phase 
circuit of the same kilowatt capacity and power fac- 
tor. The three wires of a three-phase cireuit and the 
four wires of a two-phase circuit should all be made the 
same size, and each conductor should be of the ecross- 
section given by the first formule. 


GENERAL WIRING FORMULAE 


Pounds. 


Weight of Bare Wire per 
1000 ft. 


No. of Wire, B. & S, Gauge. 
Area Circular Mils 


0000 |211,600 640. 73 
000 |167,805|508.12 





00 |183,079|402. 97 





0 |105,592/319.74 





1| 83,694|253. 43 
2,| 66,373/200.98 











WIRING CONSTANTS. 


Values of M. 


039 





30 Cycles. 60 Cycles. 125 Cycles. 
San! es Sis pH om A es! oP ore 
act TA é . — : Pai. ee A cC 
GA} sh | Bea] Sh m4) eu] 6m oe | eo 
Ow aor © +» 21 ox Ow 2 1oOr 
aoe) SS = | Sash || se! i yee asl S| 

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2o] 80 ae B8o}] ao ae Bol ao mi 
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ae] Oe so 0 A, ga 38 0 A, a a 

ve) uD uD S 
Hs Sw R ae) Sa S| 8 3% x 

A rl 











1.06 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.23 | 1.21} 1.16] 1.57 





1.03 | 1.00 | 1.00} 1.16] 1.11} 1.06] 1.44 


3| 52,633/159.38) 1.02 | 1.00} 1.00 | 1.11 | 1.04 | 1.00 | 1.85 


4| 41,742/126. 40) 1.00) 1.00) 1.00 | 1.07 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.26 





5 | 83,102/100. 23] 1.00} 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.04) 1.00] 1.00} 1.19 
6 | 26,250} 79.49] 1.00} 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.02} 1.00] 1.00} 1.14 





7% | 20,816] 63.03) 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00} 1.09 
8 6, 49,99} 1.00} 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.06 


ae eat Se TE TRS ETS ERE GSI SH SI eT GER rc 








3.06 | 3.14 
2.62 | 2.67 


2.20 | 2.29 
1.96 | 1.99 


————— | —_——— 





1.01} 1.00 
1.00 | 1.00 


536 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


WIRING CONSTANTS. 


Values of T. 
































Single-phase, all lights. 95 percent P. F................ 1.052 
Single-phase, motors and lights. 85 percent P. F........ 1.176 
Single-phase, all motors. 80 percent P.F.......,....;.- 1.250 
Three-phase, alllights. 9dpercent’P; F:...........6-... .607 
Three-phase, motors and lights. 85 per cent P. F........ .679 
Three-phase, all motors. 80 per cent P. F............... £725 
Two-phase (four-wire), all lights. 95 percent P. F....... 526 
Two-phase (four-wire), motors and lights. 85 percent P.F. —.588 
Two-phase (four-wire), all motors. 80 percent P. F..... .625 
o [| ais |e 
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537 


GENERAL WIRING FORMULAE 





















































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538 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


FUSING EFFECTS OF CURRENTS. 


Table giving the diameters of wires of various materials which 
will be fused by a current of given strength. 


W. H. PREECE, F. R. S. 
2 
a~(*)3 
a 


DIAMETERS IN INCHES 














n 

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i 

o 

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= ® b 

a - = 

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Be =| E | z | E | S| d | - | = | S | 

=| qs a3 has os as os AS As SoS 

S) S) < Ay o) A, 4A Ss = A 





GENERAL WIRING FORMULAE 539 


The following tables show the minimum break dis- 
tance, and the separation of the nearest metal parts of 
opposite polarity for plain open-link fuses and switches, 
when mounted on slate or marble bases, for different 

ees and for different currents: 


Separation of nearest 


metal parts of Minimum 
125 VOL''S OR LESS. opposite polarity. break distance. 
10 amperes or less........ PARVIG Rn we cee 3¢ inch 
11-100 amperes........... 1 Sa) eave a AP aee era as Tee ee 
101-800 amperes........... tO Slee) Bera ag Tiare 
125 TO 250 VOLTS. 
10 amperes or less........ USA! i ate Lys 
11-100 amperes........... YT nena, eae Lia 
101-300 amperes........... DEMME Oe iene gals a Leis 


125 VOLTS OR LESS. 
FOR SWITCH AND PANEL BOARDS: 


10 amperes or less........ LE oa Aig Rha a ye « 
11-25 amperes............ LT tay ete ear Ae 34S 
26-50 amperes............ LSE Seamtt oe tee eee ate ce Ler: 
FOR INDIVIDUAL SWITCHES: 
10 amperes or less........ Ee See Petia: | cae Borah te Ge 
11-25 amperes............ Leeper one a gehen, Bis ok 
36-100 amperes........... ZG ne ee rae crater, eG Be 
101-300 amperes........... Pe SS ee aR sae Vee 
301-1000 amperes.......... Bal (RE eis eel a 23% SS 


125 TO 250 VOLTS. 
FOR ALL SWITCHES: 


10 amperes or less........ AN SE Nalanda af A i 
dieSOvaIN PETES Uh ers ss... U0 TES Age Shiai aa pe bag ut 
36-100 amperes........... PAE te) RAS ie Ms Aarne Aa ee its 
101-300 amperes........... Py Be Oa ars ohn hohe Peay eM 
301-1000 amperes.......... ah 1) SRS Unie Rag tree pt i 23% SS 


250 TO 600 VOLTS. 
FOR ALL SWITCHES: 


10 amperes or less........ DIS MESO e ef Sys aca cine Shee 
Uso ANY PCLes sccm tar. oe! olay Oe aa RI PET ae 3% ‘* 
36-100 amperes........... Aue sclts «oats cere rns Aas 


Auxiliary breaks or equivalents are recommended for switches 
designed for over 800 volts, and less than 100 amperes, and are 
required on switches designed for use in breaking currents over 
100 amperes, at a pressure of more than 300 yolts, 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


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PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE ACTION OF 
BRAKES. 


When the brake is apphed the energy stored in the 
moving ear by the motors is consumed, being overcome by 
the friction of the brake shoes against the wheels. 

The efficient application of the brake, with a view to 
stop the car within the least possible distance, with the 
least strain and wear upon equipment, and shock to pas- 
sengers, 1s primarily a matter of good judgment, coupled 
with experience. Therefore, the study of the brake and 
braking apparatus in its completeness will largely add 
to the value of the motorman, to his company, for the 
saving of power alone which can be effected by an in- 
telligent operation of the brakes is an item of no small 
consequence in the economy of operating clectric cars. 
Together with their various modifications there are five 
principal styles of brakes in general use. 

1. The earliest style of brake is the hand brake; the 
brake shoes being pressed against the wheels with power 
‘supplied by the physical force of the motorman, and 
either by means of a long lever or by staff upon which 
a chain is wound by turning. 

2. The momentum or dise brake is operated through 
the medium of a friction disc, or clutch mounted on the 
axle, and the brake shoe is drawn up by the power which 
the momentum of the car provides. 

3. The air brake, which is operated by compressed 
air power, pressing the shoe against the wheel by means 
of a piston which works in and out of the cylinder con- 
taining the compressed air. 


041 


542 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


4. The electric brake is operated by the motors them- 
selves, which are connected to act as dynamos and fur- 
nish the electricity which exerts the force that stops, as 
well as starts, and runs the ear. 

5. Track brakes absorb the energy expressed in the 
momentum of the ear, by friction against the rail instead 
of the car wheel. The shoes adjusted to a part of the 
braking apparatus are carried at the sides of the truck, 
and press down upon the top of track rail with force 
enough to check the movement of the ear. 

In modern electric railway operation nearly all cars 
are equipped with power brakes of some kind, in addi- 
tion to hand brakes. These cars are equipped with 
mechanism consisting of different combinations of rods, 
beams, and levers, and by the manipulation of the brake 
levers or handles the power is transmitted through the 
system, causing a pressure of the brake shoe against the 
wheels with varying degrees of force at the discretion of 
the operator. 

The general principle applying in the arrangement of 
the many styles of brake rigging with which trucks are 
provided is the same; the differences consisting of detail, 
rather than of essential variations. In an ordinary truck 
equipped with hand brakes, the brake shoes are located 
close behind the car wheels. 

When the brakes are not set there is a space of about 
1 in. between the brake shoes and the wheels. The 
shoes are adjusted to the brake beams, and to the latter, 
one end of the brake rod is attached, and the other 
end is made fast to the cross beam, which engages with 
the equalizer bar. The hook rods, into which the brake 
chain is hooked, are secured at the ends of the equalizer 


PRINCIPLES GOVERNING BRAKES 543 


bar. When the brake is released the brake shoes are re 
moved from the wheels by means of a strong spring. 

When the brake handle is turned around one or more 
turns the brake chain is wound up, and the hook rod is 
pulled forward which moves the equalizer bar, and 
thereby the cross beams. When the cross beams move 
toward each other the rods are moved, which brings the 
brake beams and shoes towards each other, fixing the 
brake shoes firmly against the wheels. As all of the 
brake shoes act at the same time, in course of time the 
wear on some of the shoes will be greater than on others, 
thus causing slack. To provide against the effect of 
slack an adjustment is made to take up the slack, and this 
is done where the rods connect with the brake beam near 
the shoes. The ends of the rods are threaded, and in 
pockets provided in the brake beam nuts are secured. 
Into these sleeve nuts the rods are screwed. ‘lo make 
the adjustment the head of the nut is turned, which 
shortens the rod, and brings a worn shoe nearer to the 
wheel. By this method each shoe can be adjusted sepa- 
rately as may be required, and the pressure of every shoe 
maintained at normal pressure. 

The brake mechanism on double-truck cars is modified 
in order that means may be provided to obtain an ap- 
proximately equal pressure on every wheel, which in- 
sures maximum braking effect and prevents sliding, 
which would occur if one set of wheels were locked more 
firmly than the others. In order to apply the brakes 
on both trucks by one motion of the single brake handle, 
or by one air brake cylinder, there is introduced a fixed 
lever in the center of the car between the trucks, and to 
this are connected the brake rods from each truck. By 
means of a chain and rod, the central lever is connected 


544 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


to the brake staff, and the brakes of both trucks can be 
operated simultaneously by moving the rod and central 
lever. 

The dimensions of the levers are given below: 

Fixep Lever, length 48 ins. Distance between the 
pins for the arch bar rod 9 ins. 

Truck LEvEr, length 13 ins. 

BRAKE HANDLE, length 15 ins. 

Exerting a pull of 65 lbs. at the brake handle with 
these dimensions will produce a total braking pressure 

of 29,000 Ibs. 
- On these brakes there are chains in duplicate, working 
with a double sprocket wheel instead of one chain wound 
around the brake staff. If one chain breaks the other 
may be brought into action and the operator can, when 
applying the brakes, feel the slightest contact of the 
brake shoes with the wheels. 


NEW AIR BRAKE EQUIPMENTS FOR STEAM 
RAILROADS—LATEST DEVICES OF THE NEW 
YORK AIR BRAKE CO. AND THE WESTING- 
HOUSE CoO. 


On account of the constantly increasing demand from 
our students for information concerning the new equip- 
ments, and the latest appliances connected with the air 
brake, as apphed to steam railroads, it has been thought 
best to introduce at this point a section giving full and 
complete descriptions, and illustrations of the very latest 
improved devices, as applied by both the Westinghouse 
and New York Air Brake companies. Among the many 
new equipments described will be included the B? H. S. 
and B? H. P. equipment, the Duplex pressure controller, 
and double pressure system; the acceleration valve and 
high speed controller of the New York system. The 
new E. T. equipment of the Westinghouse system is 
clearly deseribed and illustrated, including the new dis- 
tributing valve, the type H brake valve, the independent 
brake valve, type K freight valve, and type L triple 
valve. The construction and operation of each and all of 
these latest improved devices is placed before the student 
in a plain, practical manner, and a close study of the 
principles governing their action cannot fail to be of 
creat benefit to the man engaged in railroad practice, 
- whether steam or electric. 


e 


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AUAILIARY RES 





With this Apparatus the Accelerator Valve and 
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eCCELERATOR VALVE OWIDED RESERVOIR 


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B2-HS. Locomotive Brake Equipment. 











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(High Speed Brake.) 


‘B2 H. S. EQUIPMENT—NEW YORK AIR BRAKE. 


The locomotive brake equipment described and illus- 
trated herewith is known as the B2-HS equipment and 
is arranged in three different schedules to cover the re- 
quirements of railroad service in general. 

Schedule B2 covers the single pressure system, Ba2- 
HP the double pressure system, and B2-HS the double 
pressure system with high speed attachment such as 
shown herewith. 

The equipment differs materially from any schedule 
heretofore furnished. As with the Combined Automatic 
and Straight Air Brake, the independent brake valve 
has been dispensed with, and by the addition of the Du- 
plex Pressure Controller and Accelerator Valve, more has 
been accomplished than was heretofore possible, and with 
less apparatus. 

With this equipment the train brakes can be released, 
and the locomotive brakes held on. The locomotive 
brakes can then be released when desired, or can be ap- 
plied and released independently of the train brakes, or 
together with same at the option of the engineer. 

- The locomotive brakes can be operated at all times by 
automatic or independent application, and without re- 
gard to position of the locomotive in a train, whether 
used as a helper, coupled to another or assigned to any 
other part of train. They can be applied and released 
at will, and can be graduated off after an application of 
the train brakes; therefore, in all kinds of service the 
train brakes can be handled without shock to the train. 
547 


548 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The accelerator valve will be found a valuable addi- 
tion to these equipments when operating long trains, for, 
with the use of same, shorter stops will be effected, and 
a more uniform application of the train brakes obtained. 

All excess pressure is confined to the main reservoir, 
and in no position of the brake valve handle can the 
brake pipe pressure increase above its maximum. This 
will prevent over-charging of auxiliary reservoirs on the 
head end of trains, and also reduce the strain on air brake 
hose. 


B2 EQUIPMENT. 


This equipment is designed for passenger or freight 
service where but one brake pipe pressure is used. 

Both pump governor and pressure controller have 
single regulating heads. The pressure head for the pres- 
sure controller should be adjusted to 70 lbs. for brake 
pipe pressure, and the pump governor head adjusted to 
go lbs. for main reservoir pressure. 


B2-S EQUIPMENT. 


This equipment is for use with switch engines as be- 
fore stated. A single pump governor is provided, also a 
single pressure controller for brake pipe pressure regu- 
lation, In the pipe connecting the regulating and sup- 
ply portions of the pressure controller is located cut-out 
cock No. 2. When this cock is open the controller should 
give a maximum brake pipe pressure of 70 lbs. and the 
pump governor adjusted to 110 lbs. for main reservoir 
pressure. This will give the necessary air pressure for 
freight service. By closing the cut-out cock the pressure 


B2. EQUIPMENT 049 


controller will become inoperative, allowing the main 
reservoir pressure of 110 lbs. to pass to the brake valve, 
and brake pipe for high speed service. 


B2-HP EQUIPMENT, 


This equipment is for use in freight service only. Both 
regulating portions of the pump governor and pressure 
controller are duplex, so that pressures of 70 and go lhks. 
can be carried in the brake pipe and 90 and Ito lbs. in 
the main reservoir for the ordinary brake pipe pressure 
and the high pressure control. 

For the operation of these duplex regulating portions, 
three way cocks are provided, being connected as shown 
in the piping diagram. 

To operate these cocks turn the handle in line with 
the pipe leading to the regulating head to be used, high 
or low pressure as desired. This will cut in the head to 
regulate the supply portion, and cut off the one not in 
use. 


B2-HS EQUIPMENT. 


High speed locomotive brake equipment. The system 
of regulation of pressure for the high speed equipment 
is the same as with the B2-HP except that the regulat- 
ing heads of the pressure controller should be adjusted 
to 70 and 110 lbs. for brake pipe pressure, and the pump 
governor heads adjusted to 90 and 120 or 130 lbs. as 
desired for main reservoir pressure. 


550 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


MANIPULATION. 


On the folded sheet (Plate 36) will be found piping 
diagrams of the several B-2 equipments, and it should 
be referred to in connection with the following instruc- 
tions : 


GENERAL, 


To apply the locomotive and train brakes (automatic), 
move the handle of the brake valve to the graduating 
notch necessary to make the required brake pipe reduc- 
tion. 

To release both locomotive and train brakes, move 
the handle to Running and Straight Air release position. 

To release the train brakes and hold the locomotive 
brakes set (Straight Air), move the handle to Full Auto- 
matic release and Straight Air application position. 

To release the locomotive brakes, move the handle to 
Running and Straight Air release position. 

To apply the locomotive brakes (Straight Air), move 
the handle to Full Automatic release and Straight Air 
application position. 

To apply the brakes in an emergency, move the handle 
quickly to Emergency position, and leave it there until the 
train stops, or the danger has passed. 

In case the automatic brakes are applied by the burst- 
ing of a hose, the train parts, or a conductor’s valve is 
opened,. place the handle in Lap position to retain the 
main reservoir pressure. 

To graduate off or entirely release the locomotive 
brakes after an application of the train brakes, use the 
lever safety valve to make the required reduction. 


BZ EQUIPMENT ool 


The handle of the brake valve will be found to work 
freely and easily at all times, as the pressure on the main. 
slide valve does not exceed the maximum brake pipe pres- 
sure, 

The cylinder gauge will show at all times the pressure 
in the locomotive brake cylinders, and should be observed 
in all brake manipulations. 

Where there are two or more locomotives in a train 
cut-out cock No. 1, shown in plate 36, should be turned 
to close the brake pipe, and the brake valve handle carried 
in Running and Straight Air release position on all loco- 
motives, except the one from which the brakes are oper- 
ated. 


In case it becomes necessary to cut out the Straight 
Air brake, close cut-out cock No. 3 which is located in 
the straight air pipe between the Brake Valve and the 
Reducing Valve. 

To cut out the Automatic Brake, close cut-out cock 
No. 6 located in the pipe connecting the Triple Valve 
with the Double Check Valve. 

By locating the cut-out cock between the Triple and 
Double Check Valves, the auxiliary reservoirs will re- 
main charged, while the brake is cut out, and can be 
alternated with the train brakes in descending long grades 
to prevent overheating of the locomotive tires, 

Cut-out cocks Nos. 3 and 6 are special, they are of 
the three-way pattern, and when turned off drain the 
pipes leading to the double check valve to keep the latter 
seated in the direction of the closed cock. 

The main reservoir cock No. 4 is to cut off the sup- 
ply of air when removing any of the apparatus except 
the governor. 

The straight air controller is to limit the pressure in 


552 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


the driver, truck and tender brake cylinders for the 
straight air brake, and should be adjusted to 40 pounds 
pressure. 

Cut-out cocks Nos. 5, 6 and 7 are recommended when 
truck brake is used, their purpose being fully understood. 
Nos. 9 and 10 can be added, if desired, so that the driver 
brake cylinders and reservoir can be cut out, and engine 
truck brake operated by truck brake reservoir. 


THE Baz BRAKE VALVE. 


This brake valve, although modeled somewhat upon 
the principles of the B and BI valves, is necessarily dif- ° 
ferent in detail so as to embody the features of the pres- 
sure controller and those of the united straight air., Fig. 
266 is a photographic view of the valve. Fig. 267 is a 





Fig. 266. B-2 Brake Valve. 


longitudinal side section showing travel of main slide 
valve EV 194 and how the graduating valve EV 110 
is controlled by the piston EV 193. This view also shows 
the different positions of the brake valve handle. Fig. 
268 is a top view of the valve with the cover, slide valve 


D038 


554 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


and handle removed, showing seat and connections for 
the straight air and divided reservoir pipes. Fig. 269 
is a cross section through the valve (rear view). Fig. 
270 is a cross section through the main slide valve. Fig. 
271 shows the face of the main slide valve. 






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The main reservoir pipe is connected from the pressure 
controller to chamber B (Fig. 267) in the top of the 
valve. The brake pipe is connected to chamber A. Dis- 
charge of brake pipe air to the atmosphere for service 
applications occurs through ports F and G in the main 
slide valve and exhaust passage C in the valve body and 
for emergency applications through ports J and K in 


THE BZ BRAKE VALVE 


005 










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= VALVE RESERVOIR 


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PIPE PIPE 
TO TRAIN PIPE TO MAIN RESERVOIR 


Fig. 269, Fig. 270, 


556 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


the slide valve (Fig. 271) and exhaust passage C. The 
main slide valve also controls the flow of air from the 
main reservoir to the brake pipe. In Full automatic re- 
lease position air is free to pass from the main reservoir 
to the brake pipe through ports M and also around 
the slide valve, as in this position the slide valve is moved 
forward, uncovering a portion of the passage. (See Fig. 
272.) When the handle is in Running position only 
ports M are open but are of a size to promptly release 
all'train brakessi(5ee bie eazs) 


FACE OF SLIDE VALVE 





Small slide valve EV 110 is a cut-off or graduating 
valve, operated by piston EV.193; and levers EV 112: 
In service applications it automatically laps port F, and 
stops the discharge of brake pipe air when the brake 
pipe reduction, corresponding to the service graduating 
notch in which the handle is placed, has been made. 
Piston EV 193, which is exposed on one side to brake 
pipe pressure (Chamber A) and on the other to Chamber 
D, and supplementary reservoir pressure, through the 
agency of lever EV 112 causes valve EV 110 to move 
automatically whatever distance is necessary to close port 
ie 

Passage H (Figs. 267 and 269) runs lengthwise to the 
valve, one end leading to the supplementary reservoir 


THE B2 BRAKE VALVE 557 


as indicated in Fig. 267, while the other end leads to the 
Bpaces),. back of: thespiston EV 193. (In Fulliauto- 
matic release, and in Running and Straight Air release 
positions, air from chamber B, Fig. 268, passes through 
port W to passage H and supplementary reservoir, until 
there is equal pressure on both sides of the piston EV 
193 and the supplementary reservoir pressure is equal to 
the brake pipe pressure. 





Fig. 272. Release Position. 


Port O (Fig. 267), is used to return the piston EV 
193 to its normal position when releasing the brakes, and 
is open to the exhaust passage C when the handle of 
the brake valve is in Full Automatic Release, Running, 
and Lap positions, and closes just before the handle is 
brought to the first graduating notch. During the time 
the brake valve handle is in any of these positions, 
port O is open through passage C to the atmosphere, 
as stated, and if it were not for the vent valve EV 180 the 
function of piston EV 193 would be destroyed, as a con- 
tinual blow from chamber D would result while the pis- 
ton EV 1093 is in operation the vent valve EV 180 is 
away from its seat, thus opening port O to the slide valve 


558 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


seat, to be opened when the handle is again returned to 
release position. 

Connection is made with the straight air pipe through 
passage L (See Figs. 268 and 272) to which ports E 
and V connect from the main slide valve seat. Port E 
is the admission port and is open to receive pressure 
from chamber B when the handle of the brake valve is 
in Full automatic release and Straight Air application 
position. Port V is the exhaust port and is used to ex- 
haust the pressure from the driver brake cylinders in 
releasing the straight air brake, the release being accom- 
plished through ports R and J in the main slide valve, 
and passage C in the valve body. (See Fig. 273.) 





Fig. 273. Running Position. 


Port V is also used to pass pressure from chamber B to 
the straight air brake when, the handle is in the Fifth 
graduating notch and Emergency position. This is done 
so that if there is cylinder leakage or excessive piston 
travel, the Straight Air brake will hold the pressure in 
these cylinders to the adjustment of the Reducing Valve. 

In all graduating positions of the Brake Valve, brake 
pipe pressure is admitted to the divided reservoir (Large 
compartment Fig. 279) to operate the Accelerator Valve. 


THE B2 BRAKE VALVE 559 


When the Brake Valve handle is moved to any of the 
graduating notches, brake pipe pressure will flow through 
port S, passage X, and cavity AC in the main slide valve 
(Fig. 271) and through port T, and passage Y in the 
Valve body (Fig. 268) to the divided reservoir until the 
port S is cut off by the Graduating Valve EV 110, 
when the latter closes the service port F. To guard 
against possibility of the Accelerator Valve being open 
while the Brake Valve handle is in a Release position, 
which might occur if the handle was returned before a 
service application had been completed, port J in the main 
slide valve (Fig. 271) has been enlarged so as to open 
port T to the exhaust passage C, and the atmosphere 
when the handle is in a release position. These ports are 
large enough to rapidly discharge the air accumulated 
in the divided reservoir, and thereby permit the accele- 
rator valve to immediately close. By referring to the 
diagrammatic views of the main slide valve and seat 
shown in Figs. 272 to 277 inclusive, it will be seen what 
ports are open and closed in the different positions of the 
slide valve. 


FULL AUTOMATIC RELEASE AND STRAIGHT AIR APPLI- 
CATION POSITION (FIG. 272). 


The purpose of this position is to promptly release the 
automatic brakes and to apply the straight air brakes on 
the Locomotive. In this position, air is flowing directly 
from chamber B (main reservoir) into chamber A (brake 
pipe) past the end of the slide valve and through ports 
M. Port O is open to port J and exhaust passage C to 
return the piston EV 193, and port W is open to charge 
the supplementary reservoir. Port T, also by means of 


560 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


port J, is open to the exhaust passage C to discharge 
the pressure from the large compartment of the divided 
reservoir. Port E is also open for pressure to pass to the 
driver brake cylinders through the straight air pipe until 
shut off by the reducing valve. 


RUNNING POSITION. 


RUNNING AND STRAIGHT AIR RELEASE POSITION. 
(Fig. 273.) This is the proper position of the handle 
when wishing to release both Straight Air and Automatic 
brakes simultaneously, or to release the Straight Air 
Brake. Connection from Chamber B into Chamber A 





is made through the ports M. Port E is lapped. Ports 
O, T and W remain the same as in Release Position. 
Ports R and V register with each other, thus connecting 
the straight air brake with the exhaust passage C as 
shown, to discharge the pressure from the driver brake 
cylinders. 

Lap Position. (Fig. 274.) This position should be 
used in case a hose bursts, the train parts or a con- 
ductor’s valve is opened, to save the main reservoir pres- 


THE B2 BRAKE VALVE 561 


cure. In this position all ports are blanked, excepting 
port O. As in Release and Running Positions, this port 
is open to the exhaust passage C. In this particular posi- 
tion cavity P in the slide valve seat is made use of to 
connect the port with passage C. 





Fig. 275. First Graduating Position. 


GRADUATING Positions. (Figs 275 and 276.) These 
positions give a gradual reduction of brake pipe pres- 
sure for service applications. In Fig. 275 ports M are 





Fig. 276. Last Graduating Position. 


blanked and communication from the main reservoir to 
the brake pipe is cut off. The straight air ports E and 
V are also blanked, as well as ports O and W, which are 
cut off just before the handle reaches the First Graduat- 


562 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ° 


ing Notch. Ports F and G are open to the exhaust pass- 
age C, and port S is open through passage X to port T 
to receive pressure from the brake pipe and pass it to the 
divided reservoir to operate the Accelerator Valve. Ports 
F and S will remain open to receive brake pipe pressure 
until cut off by the graduating valve EV 110 when the 
service reduction has been made. 

In the remainder of the Graduating Positions, the rela- 
tion of ports remains the same with the exception of the 
restricted passage N (Fig 276) in the end of the slide 
valve which in the Fifth Graduating notch is over the 
straight air port V, and should there be excessive piston 
travel or cylinder leakage the Straight Air equipment 
will hold the pressure in these cylinders to the adjustment 
of the reducing valve. The restriction of port N is to 
prevent the pressure from passing to the driver brake 
cylinders in advance of pressure from the auxiliary reser- 
voir of the automatic brake. 





Fig. 277. Emergency Position. 
EMERGENCY POSITION (FIG. 277). 


This position is to be used when it is desired to apply 
the brakes to their quickest and fullest capacity. In this 
position, the active ports are J and K, which are open 
to exhaust brake pipe pressure from chamber A to the 


THE B2 BRAKE VALVE 563 


atmosphere. Port V as in the fifth graduating notch is 
open to maintain the pressure in the driver brake cylin- 
ders against leakage, etc. Port E is closed, also ports F, 
MeO eS = eandaVy 

To dismantle the Valve, the valve cover EV 195 should 
first be removed, and then the back cap EV 191. The 
main slide valve EV 194 should be taken off, and the 
Graduating valve EV t1o lifted out—also the Graduat- 
ing valve spring EV 111. Next remove the fulcrum 
pin EV 113, after which remove the piston EV 1093. 

Do not attempt to remove the follower cap nut EV 
181 from the piston EV 193 while the piston is in the 
valve body, as to do this would probably result either in 
springing the groove in the piston stem, or in breaking 
off the dowel pin in the valve body. 

Figs, 267 to 270 show the different parts of the valve, 
their names being as follows: EV 60, Small union nut; 
EV 62, Small union ell; EV 69, Handle spring; EV 75, 
Handles pin. i Vie77 ee tiandie: seticcrew sa Ve Os; «Lever 
shatt pin with cotter; EV o0,°%° plug; EV “103, End 
plug; EV 105-A, Follower; EV 107, Packing Leather ; 
EV 108, Expander; EV 110, Graduating Valve; EV 111, 
Graduating valve spring; EV 112, Graduating valve 
lever; EV 113, Fulcrum pin; EV 116-A, Link; EV 117-A 
Linkwpinne Valisoude valve levers 12.V. reos Lever 
shaft; EV 121, Lever shaft packing; EV 123, Handle; 
EV 128, Small union stud; EV 129, Cover screw; EV 
130, Quadrant screw; EV 158, Small union swivel; EV 
159, Cover gasket; EV 172, Latch; EV 173, Latch screw ; 
BY -175. Link pinscotter; EV 180, Vent valve; EV 181, 
Follower cap nut; EV 182, Vent valve spring; EV 183, 
Piston cotter; EV 190, Body; EV 191, Back cap; EV 192, 
Cap gasket; EV 193, Piston; EV 194, Main slide’ valve; 


564 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


EV 195, Valve cover; EV 196, Lever shaft plug; EV 198, 
Quadrant ; EV 199, Back cap stud and nut; QT 3, Piston 
ring; QT 29, 1” Union nut; QT 30, 1” Union swivel; 
QT 31, 1” Union gasket. 

—y ie rn | 


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OLY 





icorren pipe 
TO BRAKE VALVE 


Fig. 278. 
SUPPLEMENTARY RESERVOIR USED WITH SWITCH ENGINE 


EQUIPMENT, SCHEDULE B2-S (FIG. 278). 
NAMES OF PARTS. 
EV 60, Small union nut; EV 155, Supplementary reser- 
voir; EV 156, Reservoir plug; EV 158, Union swivel ( 3%” 
copper pipe). 


Piece No. 16RV 






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600 CU.IN. 
CAPACITY 


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v200 
Fig. 279. Divided Reservoir. 


EV 60—Small union nut. E V 197—Divided reservoir. 
EV 62—Small union ell. E V 200—Botton plug. 
E V 156—Reservoir plug. R V 134—%%-inch stud and nut. 


E V 158—Union swivel. R V 148—Accelerator valve gasket. 


THE DUPLEX PRESSURE CONTROLLER ‘AND 
DOUBLE PRESSURES Yo LEM 


This valve, in reality, is a part of the Brake Valve, 
taking place of the excess pressure or feed valve, and 
is connected in the main reservoir pipe near the Brake 
Valve, to control the brake pipe pressure. The Con- 





Fig. 280. Duplex Regulating Portion of Pressure Controller. 


troller is in principle the same as that of a Duplex 

Pump Governor with the exception of the regulating tops, 

which connect to the brake pipe. In no position of 

the Brake Valve handle is there danger of the brake 
565 


566 ' ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


pipe becoming over-charged, or equal to that in the main 
reservoir. 

This equipment is designed so that two pressures 
may be carried in the brake pipe, and also in the main 
reservoir. It will be seen by reference to the piping 
diagram that there is a union three-way cock, from which 
pipes lead to the regulating tops, and supply which in 
this case is brake pipe pressure. The same arrange- 





Fig. 281. Supply Portion of Pressure Controller. 


ment also applies to the pump governor. A sectional 
view of this cock is shown in Figs 284 and 285. When 
one regulating top is cut in the other one is cut out and 
vice versa. This is done to relieve the strain on the regu- 
lating tops when not working. When the cocks are in 
the position shown in the piping diagram the low pres- 
sure regulating tops of the Controller and Duplex Pump 


DUPLEX PRESSURE CONTROLLER 567 


Governor are cut in, giving a pressure of seventy pounds 
to the brake pipe, and ninety pounds to the main reser- 
voir. When the cocks are reversed, one hundred and 
ten pounds will then be carried in the brake pipe, and 
one hundred and thirty pounds in the main reservoir. 
Fig. 280 is a photographic view of the Duplex Pres- 
sure controller, and Fig. 281 is a view of the supply por- 
tion. Figs. 282 and 283 are sectional views of both the 





’ 
| €V6 
| . : 42° fe p= 2 Copper Pipe az 








Fig. 282. 


duplex and single regulating portions. Fig. 286 shows 
the supply portion in section. Referring to Fig. 286, con- 
nection is made with the main reservoir at M. R. and 
by means of the cored passage, air is free to pass to the 
under side of the valve P G95. Connection BV leads to 
the brake valve, main reservoir connection, and connection 
D to the regulating portion (single or duplex) also con- 
necting at D in Figs. 282 and 283. 

In operation with either a single or duplex regulat- 


568 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


ing portion, as soon as the pressure in the brake pipe 
is great enough to overcome the resistance of the spring 
PG 10 which is holding the diaphragm PG 13 seated over 
port B, the pressure will pass through passage E to 
connection D, and by piping to the space E in the sup- 
ply portion of the controller above the piston PG 4, forc- 
ing the piston, and valve PG 95 down until seated, cut- 
ting off communication between main reservoir and brake 


pipe. 





Fig. 283. 


As soon as the pressure falls in the brake pipe below 
the adjustment of spring PG io, the latter will force 
diaphragm PG 13 to its seat, closing off port B, where- 
upon pressure in passage E, and piping connecting 
supply and regulating portions, and space E above pis- 
ton PG 4 will immediately escape to the atmosphere 
through the small port C in the regulating head of the 
controller, after which main reservoir pressure will lift 
valve PG 95 off its seat, and again open communication 
to the brake pipe. 


DUPLEX PRESSURE CONTROLLER 569 


Port X in the supply portion of the controller con- 
nects the under side of piston PG 4 with atmosphere, 
so that it will be free to operate and to discharge any 
leakage by the ring PG 24 or valve PG 95. 

The regulating portions are provided with brackets 
so that they can be attached to the cab in some con- 
venient place where they will be handy for adjustment. 
The adjustment of these regulating heads is accomplished 
by means of nut PG 35 which regulates the tension of 
spring PG Io. 





Fig. 284. Fig. 285. 


Each regulating head has a vent port C, and to avoid 
any unnecessary waste of air, one of these heads should 
be plugged with screw PG 33. The cut-out cock shown 
in Fig. 285 is used with the B2S equipment, between the 
regulating and supply portions. When this cock is closed 
the supply portion of the controller is cut off. 

The hand wheel PG 45 can be used in descending 
grades if desired, to increase the brake pipe pressure 
to that of the main reservoir. By screwing the wheel 
up, it will lift the valve PG 95 off its seat and thus al- 
low the two pressures to become equal. The Controller 
will then be inoperative, and main reservoir pressure will 
be free to pass to the brake pipe until the Controller is 
again restored to its operative condition. 


570 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The names of parts of the regulating portion are: PG 
3A Spring Casing; PG 1o Regulating Spring; PG 12A 
“anid Be Diaphragm button; (PGs 13s Dinpitacm erties 
Air valve seat; PG 32 Diaphragm body; PG 33 Vent 
plug; PG 34 Cap; PG 35 Regulating nut; PG 36 Air 
union swivel (38” copper pipe); PG 37 Air union nut; 
PG 98 Duplex bracket; EV 60 Small union nut; EV 
128 Small union stud; EV 158 small union swivel (3%” 
copper pipe). The parts of the three-way cock are: SC 
57, Washers) SC S58 eNubes@eizo Body = Gen coer ie. 
EV 60 Small union nut; EV 158 Union Swivel (3%” cop- 


per pipe). 


3 y 
Ss } 


win”* 
Moshe jj 
Y 





Fig. 286. 


The parts of the supply portion are: PG 4 Piston; 
PG, 6A Valve guide; PG 24 Piston ring; PG 45 Hand 
wheel; PG 46 Lifting Stem; PG 48 Body; PG 49 Cap; 
PG 94 Guide; PG 95 Valve; PG 99 114” union nut; PG 
100 144” union swivel; EV 60 Small union nut; EV 128 
Small union stud; EV 158 Union swivel (3@” copper 
pipe) ; SA 6 Leather seat; SA 39 Valve stem nut; AV 28 
‘Hand wheel nut, 


ACCELERATOR VALVE. 


This valve is designed to assist the Brake Valve in 
discharging brake pipe pressure when making service 
stops on long trains to bring about a more uniform ap- 
plication of the brakes, and to apply them more promptly 
than heretofore. 





Fig. 287. Accelerator Valve. 


The Valve is perfectly automatic in its operation, be- 
ing governed entirely by the volume of air in the brake 
pipe, operating only when the train is of such a length 


ol 


572 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


as to warrant the use of same. The operation is similar 
to that of the graduating mechanism in the Brake Valve, 
opening about four seconds after the Brake Valve han- 
dle has been moved to a graduating notch, and closing 
in about the same length of time after the graduating 
valve has closed. 

Fig. 287 is an outside view of the Valve showing con- 
nection to brake pipe and exhaust which is through the 
street ell. A sectional view is shown in Fig. 288. The 
Valve is bolted to the end of the divided reservoir (Fig. 






7 __? 















qd 


Y 


Lahn hthbahhnhad 
SSL LLY LID 


WY 
ass 
BE saoes 


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r 


GEXY 


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z 





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MMM INGA 
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Loz 






SS 


Fig. 288 


279), and receives pressure from same through passage 
O which connects to the space C above the piston RV 
65. The brake pipe connection leads to the slide valve 
chamber O. 

Chamber B is open to the atmosphere through port 
T, and in the operation of the Valve, will carry off the 
discharge of pressure through port S, and any leakage 
by the piston RV 65 or valve stem RV 67. 


ACCELERATOR VALVE 573 


The slide valve RV 74, when at rest, laps the port 
b and exhaust, and is held in this position by the spring 
OT 231 through the medium of valve stem RV 67, 
which seats in the manner shown. Port b is triangular, 
the larger portion being at the bottom, and in oper- 
ation brake pipe pressure is gradually cut off as the 
slide valve closes. Port a in the slide valve is oblong 
being just long enough to uncover the triangular port 
b, when the slide valve is wide open. To give the slide 
valve a slow closure port R is provided in the valve body, 
and port S through the piston RV 65 as shown. When 
the valve is in operation and brake pipe pressure is being 
discharged to the atmosphere through ports a and b, 
ports R and S are open to discharge the pressure above 
the piston and divided reservoir. As soon as the pres- 
sure in the divided reservoir has reduced sufficiently for 
the spring QT 231 to operate, it will move the valve 
slowly upward until the port R is cut off, which will then 
reduce the discharge from the reservoir about one-half, 
giving the slide valve the slow closure desired. 

The valve operates when there are eight or more cars 
in a train, and requires from fifteen to seventeen pounds 
pressure in the divided reservoir to operate it. Any 
pressure passing into this reservoir, as with a shorter 
train than eight cars, will be discharged to the atmos- 
phere through ports S and T, the slide valve remaining 
closed. 

The proper names of parts of the accelerator valve 
are as follows: PG 24, Piston ring; RV 62, Body; 
RV 63, Upper cap; RV 64, Lower cap; RV 65, Piston; 
Rivao7, Valve stem “RV 70; Leather seats, RV 74; slide 
valve; OT 231, Spring; EV 656, Slide valve spring; 
HS 24, %” Street ell. 


STRAIGHT AIR REDUCING VALVE. 


The purpose of this valve is to limit the pressure in 
the driver, and truck brake cylinders, to 40 pounds when 
using the straight air brake. 





Fig. 289. Straight Air Reducing Valve. 


Fig. 289 is a photographic view of the reducing valve 
and Fig. 290 a section showing the valves, passages, etc. 
Connection from the brake valve is made to the union 
fitting A and by means of the passage C pressure is free 
to pass to the feed valve SA 26. Connection B leads to 


574 


AIR REDUCING VALVE 575 


double check valve and brake cylinders. During the time 
the tension of the spring against the diaphragm is 
stronger than the force exerted against it by the brake 
cylinder pressure, valve SA 26 will be held open, where- 
upon pressure from the main reservoir will be free to 
pass to the brake cylinders. As soon as the pressure 


Uy 


KSLA 
> YX SA 30 








S 

SN SA 34 
\N 4 mAN SA 20 
Uj AZ SA 20 

yj my 
Ba BY SA 22 

NS VULNS 
SA.33 Ve EEN. TD 
ks Eas oN WW KK A 
: ST J 
Pipe a Pipe 





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ONY 























P| 
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A.24 be os EvV253 EV265 EV.264 
: Ynys S$ A.25 





23° 313° 


Fig. 290. 


against the diaphragm is strong enough to overcome the 
resistance of the spring, the diaphragm will be moved 
upward, allowing the feed valve SA 26 to be closed by 
the spring SA 28, shutting off communication from the 
supply to the brake cylinders. 

The names of the parts of this valve are as follows: 
SA 19, Regulating stem; SA 20, Regulating spring; SA 


576 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


21, Diaphragm stem; SA 22, Nut; SA 23, Diaphragm 
Washer; SA 24 Body: 25) Veedevalvescapanutcass 
26, Feed Valve; SA 28, Feed valve spring; SA 20, 
Spring box; SA 30, Check nut; SA 31, Diaphragm ring; 
SA 32, Diaphragm; SA 33, Diaphragm Shield; SA 34, 
Regulating nut; EV 253, 34” Union nut; EV 254, 34” 
Union swivel; EV 255, 34” Union gasket. 


Ty ees Eee) Nigh G) ele Rage WV Ll Elanora Lhe 
SE Ves VV 


This valve is operative when the locomotive equipment 
is set for high speed service. 





Fig. 291. High Speed Controller. 


Fig. 291 is an outside view showing the general ar- 
rangement. Fig. 292 is a section showing the operative 
parts. 

The Safety Valve is for use at all times to graduate 
off brake cylinder pressure after an application of the 

O77 


578 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


train brakes when same is desired and to regulate the 
pressure in the brake cylinders during high speed oper- 


ations. It is set at 53 pounds, and should so be adjusted 
in service. 





SS SSTy 


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ith 









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SSCS 






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KH 


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To Brake Cylinders HS!IO9 
w%" Pide 
HS 107 
Fig. 292. 


The High Speed Valve to which the Safety Valve is 
fastened connects with the brake cylinder pipe at BC 
and with brake pipe at BP. 

The valve HS 108 with piston HS 107 operates when 
the brake pipe pressure is less than the pressure in brake 
cylinders. During all ordinary service applications the 
valve HS 108 will remain in position shown. In an 
emergency application when brake pipe pressure is 


HIGH SPEED CONTROLLER 57 9 


greatly reduced, the brake cylinder pressure will move 
the piston HS 107, and valve its full traverse to the seat 
C. This movement will restrict passage G leading to the 
safety valve, and atmosphere by the circular groove in 
the valve HS 108 being moved forward, closing a por- 
tion of the passage. This will give a gradual blow down 
from the brake cylinders through passage G until shut 
off by the Safety Valve. The valve will remain in this 
position until the brakes are released. 







My 





Qy | 





y Yj fiiiiistitiny 


Sy 





> 





Ports F and D allow the brake cylinder pressure around 
the piston HS 107, and back of the valve HS 108, so 
that the piston is free to operate at a slight difference 
of pressure. 

Fig. 293 is a sectional view of the lever safety valve, 
furnished with schedules B2, B2-S and B2-HP. 

Fig. 294 shows the quick release valve which is used 


580 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


with the B2-S equipment, for switch engine service, to 
quickly release the pressure from the driver brake 
cylinders. 

The lever safety valves shown in Figs. 292 and 293 are 
for use at all times to graduate off brake cylinder pres- 
sure, after an application of train brakes, when the same 
is desired. These valves are set at fifty-three pounds, and 
should be so adjusted in service. 








SFSEE 
Nn 
Hy 













SY 
SS 


Fig. 294. 


The two lever safety valves, although similar in ap- 
pearance, are different in operation. In Fig. 292 the 
valve RV 133 is of a pop-safety valve design, and when 
forced open will remain so until the pressure beneath 
it has fallen to a trifle less than the force exerted against 
it by the spring RV 105 A. The safety valve shown in 
Fig. 293 is an ordinary blow-down pop valve, and while 
it will operate and reduce brake cylinder pressure to 
the desired amount, is not as free an operating valve as 


HIGH SPEED CONTROLLER 581 


the one shown in Fig. 292. It is obvious to state that 
these lever safety valves are also for use to keep the 
brake cylinder pressure within a certain prescribed limit, 
as, if they were not used, an application of the straight 
air brake, followed by one of the automatic, would 
greatly increase the brake cylinder pressure over the pre- 
scribed limit. 

The quick release valve shown in Fig. 294, as before 
stated, is for use with schedule B2-S switch engine equip- 
ment. This valve is to hasten the release after an ap- 
plication of the automatic or straight air brakes. Re- 
ferring to Fig. 294, connection A leads to the double 
check valve as shown in the piping diagram of this 
equipment. Connection B leads to the driver brake cyl- 
inders and connection X to the exhaust. 


QUESTIONS. 


904. What is the latest addition to the New York Du- 
plex Air Brake System? 

905. How many of these, and what are they? 

906. Name the different systems covered by these 
three equipments? 

go7. In what leading features do the B2 equipments 
differ from older New York systems previously de- 
scribed ? 

908. What other advantage is gained by its use? 

gogo. What advantage is gained by the use of the ac- 
celerator valve? 

gio. What other advantage is there in connection with 
its use? 

git. For what conditions of service is the plain B2 de- 
signed. 

g12. For what class of service is the B2S equipment 
* adapted? 

913. For what class of service is the B2HP equipment 
designed only? 

g14. How many pressures may be carried in the brake 
pipe, or in the main reservoir, with the B2H.P.? 

g15. How are these pressures regulated? 

g16. How are the regulating portions operated? 

g17. For what kind of service is the B2H.S. equip- 
ment adapted? 

g18. How are the pressures regulated with this latter 
equipment ? 

g19. How are the automatic brakes applied to loco- 
motive and train? 

582 


QUESTIONS 583 


920. How are they released? 

g21. How are the train brakes released, and the lo- 
comotive brakes held? 

922. How are both released? 

923. How are the locomotive brakes released? 

924. How are the locomotive brakes (straight air) 
applied? 

925. How are the brakes applied in an emergency? 

926. In case a hose bursts, the train parts, or a con- 
ductor’s valve opens thereby applying the brakes, what 
should be done? 

g27. After an application of the train brakes, how 
may the locomotive brakes be graduated off, or entirely 
released if desired? 

928. How may the pressure in the locomotive brake 
cylinders be observed at all times? 

929. When two, or more locomotives are in a train, 
what should be done with the air brake equipment on 
those locomotives from which the brakes are not ope- 
rated? 

930. In case it becomes necessary to cut out the 
straight air brake, what must be done? 

931. How may the automatic brake be cut out? 

932. How may the cut out cock be located so that 
the auxiliary reservoirs will remain charged while the 
brake is cut out? 

933. What advantage would this be in descending 
long grades? 

934. What are the functions of cut out cocks Nos. 
3 and 6? 

935. What is the function of main reservoir cut out 


cock No. 4? 
936. What is the straight air controller designed for? 


584 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


937. When should cut out cocks Nos. 5-6 and 7 be 
used ? ' | 

938. Mention some of the principal points of differ- 
ence between the B2 brake valve, and the B, and Br 
valves? 

939. What is the purpose of full automatic release, 
and straight air application position? 

940. What functions are performed by the valve, in 
running, and straight air release position? 

941. When should Lap position be used? 

942. What are the functions of the graduating posi- 
tions ? 

943. When is emergency position to be used? 

944. What are some of the advantages gained by us- 
ing the duplex pressure controller, and double pressure 
system? | 

945. What is the Accelerator valve designed to ac- 
complish ? 

946. Is it automatic in operation? 

947. What is the purpose of the straight air reducing 
valve? 

948. When is the high speed controller, with lever 
safety valve operative? 





=. ene 


LIBRARY 


OF THE 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 


PRESSURES 































REDUCING VALVE PIPE ATMOSPHERIC SIGNAL PIPE FEED VALVE PIPE EXHAUST STEAM BRAKE VALVE EQUALIZING RESERVOIR BRAKE PIPE MAIN RESERVOIR BRAKE CYLINDER LIVE STEAM 
No. 1, DUPLEX GAUGE. No. 2 
RED HAND MAIN RESERVOIR RED HAND CYLINDER 
= BLACK HAND EQUALIZING RESERVOIR\ BLACK HAND BRAKE PIPE 
EXCESS PRESSURE 
OPERATING PIPE 
COMPRESSOR 







—a==, INDEPENDENT 
L_}© BRAKE VALVE —> 


Vi it 
: Hy —> 
FROM BOILER Data’ EXHAUST 





AUTOMATIC BRAKE 


















REDUCING VALVE PIPE i PUMP GOVERNOR 







STRAINER AND 
CHECK 






RELEASE | 





\. MAIN RESERVOIR 
GOVERNOR PIPE 










DISCHARGE PIPE 





le STRAINER ~ (B® 
DOUBLE HEADING COCK . ; 











BLED ALES RIPE 









MAIN RESERVOIR 
CUT QUT COCK ~— 








BY-PASS FOR CHARGING 
DEAD ENGINE 







DRIVER 
BRAKE 
CYLINDER 


















VALVE | CUT OUT |} 
= iat 


JF [Ot 


CUT OUT COCK 










STRAINER AND CHECK i 













RESERVOIR CONNECTING PIPE 








CRs 





ZA 
DISTRIBUTING VALVE RELEASE PIPE 

















APPLICATION CYLINDER PIPE 





Hil] DRIVER 

















ie) 
iF 





CHOKE FITTING 
CUT OUT COCKY \ 
ANGLE FITTING 3. ool he ee = a 





CHOKE FITTING ~ 





x | BRAKE CYLINDER PIPE A 











||| TenoeR 
BRAKE CYLINDER HOSE AND 


COUPLINGS ~ 


eo 








DUMMY COUPLING ~h 














= 5 CUT OUT COCK. Q 
_- ANGLE FITTING — f=——— —=tf 7 3 _§4 t 
t1_—_J A ian tl as | _ = x 

/ BRAKE PIPE ZA “STRAINER 9 engine aia 


HOSE CONNECTION —> Sssassieeesag 
TRUCK | 
BRAKE CYLINDER. 





--~ HOSE AND COUPLING 


WESTINGHOUSE AIR BRAKE SERIES 


INSTRUCTION DIAGRAM OF PIPING CONNECTIONS, No. 6 E T LOCOMOTIVE 
BRAKE EQUIPMENT 





ET LOCOMOTIVE BRAKE EQUIPMENT. 


The new locomotive equipment illustrated and de- 
scribed in this article is designated by the symbol ET. 
It differs materially from the present combined auto- 
matic and straight air brake in that it consists of con- 
siderably less apparatus. In operation it possesses all 
the advantages of the latter type of brake equipment and 
several other important ones which are necessary in mod- 
ern locomotive brake service to produce satisfactory re- 
sults. 

The design of the principal valves comprising the 
ET equipment is such that it may be applied to any loco- 
motive regardless of the service in which it is employed 
without change or modification in any of its parts; and 
the locomotive so equipped may be used in any kind of 
service, such as high speed passenger, double-pressure 
control, all ordinary passenger and freight, and in all 
kinds of switching service, without change or special ad- 
justment of the brake apparatus. All principal valves are 
so designed that they may be removed for repairs and 
replacement without disturbing the pipe joints. 

In operation its important advantages are: The loco- 
motive brakes may be controlled with or independently of 
the train brakes and this without regard to the position 
of the locomotive in the train, whether coupled to another, 
as in double heading, or used as a helper and assigned to 
any position in the train. 

They may be applied with any desired pressure be- 
tween the minimum and the maximum attainable, and 
2 585 


586 “ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


this pressure will be automatically maintained in the loco- 
motive brake cylinders regardless of leakage and varia- 
tion in piston travel, undesirable though these defects are, 
until released by the brake valve. 

They can be perfectly graduated on or off either in 
the automatic or in the independent application; hence, 
in all kinds of service the train may be handled without 
shock or danger of parting, and in passenger service 
especially smooth, accurate stops can be made with 
greater ease than was heretofore possible. 


MANIPULATION. 


The instructions for manipulating the ET equipment 
are practically the same as those given for the com- 
bined automatic and straight air brake; therefore, no 
radical departure from present methods of brake manipu- 
lation is required to get the desired results. 

The necessary instructions are briefly as follows: 

When not in use, carry the handles of both brake 
valves in running position. 

To apply the locomotive and train brakes, move the 
handle of the automatic brake valve to the service posi- 
tion, making the required brake-pipe reduction, then back 
to lap position, which is the one for holding brakes ap- 
plied. 

To release the train brakes, move the handle to the 
_ release position and hold it there until all train brakes 
are released; then, move it to holding position, graduat- 
ing off the locomotive brakes by short, successive move- 
ments between running and holding positions, aiming to 
have the locomotive brakes entirely released as the train 
stops. 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 587 


To apply the brakes in an emergency, move the handle 
of the automatic brake valve quickly to emergency posi- 
tion and leave it there until the train stops, or the danger 
is passed. 

To make a smooth and accurate two-application pas- 
senger stop, make the first application sufficiently heavy 
to bring the speed of the train down to about 15 miles 
per hour at a convenient distance from the stopping point, 
then release train brakes by moving the handle to release 
position, then the locomotive brakes by moving it to 
running position for two or three seconds before re-ap- 
plying. A little experience with the ET equipment will 
enable ‘the engineer to make smooth and accurate stops 
with much greater ease than was heretofore possible. 


When using the independent brake only, the handle 
of the automatic brake valve should be carried in running 
position. The independent application may be released 
by moving the independent-brake-valve handle to running 
position. Release position is for use when the automatic 
brake valve handle is not in running position. 

While handling long trains of cars, in road or switch- 
ing service, the independent brake should be operated 
with care and judgment, to prevent damage to the cars 
and lading, caused by running the slack in or out too 
hard. In cases of emergency arising while the indepen- 
dent brake is applied, apply the automatic brake instantly. 
The safety valve will restrict the brake cylinder pressure 
to the proper maximum. The brakes on the locomotive 
and on the train should be alternated in heavy grade 
service, to prevent overheating of driving-wheel tires and 
to assist the pressure retaining valves in holding the train 
while the auxiliary reservoirs are being recharged. 
After all brakes are applied automatically, to gradu- 


588 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


ate off or entirely release the locomotive brakes only, use 
release position of the independent brake valve. 

The cylinder gauge will show at all times the pressure 
in the locomotive brake cylinders, and this gauge should 
be observed in all brake manipulation. 

Release Position of the Independent Brake Valve will 
release the locomotive brakes under any and all conditions. 

The train brakes should invariably be released before 
detaching the locomotive, holding with hand brakes where 
necessary. This is especially important on a grade as 
there is otherwise no assurance that the car, cars, or 
train so detached will not start when the air brakes leak 
off, as they may in a short time where there is considera- 
ble leakage. 


The automatic brakes should never be used to hold a 
standing locomotive, or a train even where the locomotive 
is not detached, for longer than ten minutes, and not for 
such time if the grade is very steep or the condition of 
the brakes is not good. The safest method is to hold 
with hand brakes only, and keep the auxiliary reservoirs 
fully charged so as to guard against a start from brakes 
leaking off, and to be ready to obtain any part of full 
braking power immediately on starting. 

The independent brake is a very important safety 
feature in this connection, as it will hold a locomotive 
with a leaky throttle, or quite a heavy train on a fairly 
steep grade if, as the automatic brakes are released, the 
slack is prevented from running in or out, depending on 
the tendency of the grade, and giving the locomotive a 
start. Illustrating the best method by a descending train, 
apply the independent brake heavily as the stop is being 
completed, thus bunching the train solidly; then, when 
stopped, place and leave the handle of the independent 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 589 


brake valve in application position, release the automatic 
brakes and keep them charged. Should the train start 
through inability of the independent brakes to hold it, 
the automatic brakes will have been sufficiently recharged 
to make an immediate stop, and in which case enough 
hand brakes should be applied to render the necessary 
aid to the independent brakes. 

Many runaways and some serious wrecks have resulted 
through failure to comply with the foregoing instruc- 
tions. 

When leaving the engine while doing work about it, or 
when it is standing at a coal chute or water plug, always 
leave the independent brake valve handle in application 
position. 

In case the automatic brakes are applied by a bursted 
hose, a break-in-two or the use of a conductor’s valve, 
place the handle of automatic brake valve in lap position. 

Where there are two or more locomotives in a train, 
the double cut-out cock in the brake pipe under the auto- 
matic brake valve should be turned to close the brake 
pipe, and the automatic-brake-valve handle should be 
placed on lap on each except the one from which the 
brakes are being handled. 

Before leaving the roundhouse, the engineer should 
try the brakes with both brake valves, and see that no 
serious leaks exist. The pipes between the distributing 
valve and the brake valves should be absolutely tight. 


PARGo.OH THE LOUIPMENA: 


1. THe Air Pump to compress the air. 
2. Tue Main Reservoirs, in which to store the air 
and collect water and dirt. 


590 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


3. A DupLtex Pump Governor to control the pump 
when the pressures are attained for which it is regu- 
lated. 


4. A DistriBuTING VALVE, and small double-cham- 
ber reservoir to which it is attached, placed on the loco- 
motive to perform the functions of triple valves, auxiliary 
reservoirs, double check valve, high-speed reducing 
valves, etc. 


5s. Two BrAKkeE VALvEs, the AuToMaATICc to operate 
locomotive and train brakes, and the INDEPENDENT to 
operate locomotive brakes only. 


6. A FEED VALVE to regulate the brake-pipe pressure. 

7. A REDUCING VALVE to reduce the pressure for the 
independent brake valve, and for the air signal system 
when used. 

8. Two Arr GAUGES; one, a DUPLEX to indicate brake- 
pipe and main-reservoir pressures; the other, a SINGLE 
PoINTER to indicate locomotive brake-cylinder pressure. 

go. Driver, TENDER, and TRUCK-BRAKE CYLINDERS, 
Cut-Out Cocks, AtR STRAINERS, Hose CoupLines, Fir- 
TINGS, etc., incidental to the piping, for purposes readily 
understood. 

The piping hereafter referred to is named as follows: 


RESERVOIR Pipe: Connects the main reservoir to the 
Automatic Brake Valve, Distributing Valve, Feed Valve, 
and Reducing Valve. 

FEED-VALVE PIPE: Connects the Feed Valve to the 
Automatic Brake Valve. 

REDUCING-VALVE Pipe: Connects the Reducing Valve 
to the Independent Brake Valve, and to the Signal Sys- 
tem, when used. 

BRAKE Pree: Connects the Automatic Brake Valve 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 591 


with the Distributing Valve and all Triple Valves on the 
GArssinathc: thai 

BrAKE-CyLINDER Pipe: Connects the Distributing 
Valve with the Driver, Tender and Truck-Brake Cylin- 
ders. 

APPLICATION-CHAMBER Pipe: Connects the Applica- — 
tion Chamber of the Distributing Valve to the Automatic 
Brake Valve through the Independent Brake Valve. 

DousBLE-HEADING Pipe: Connects the Application 
Chamber exhaust port of the Distributing Valve to the 
Automatic Brake Valve through the Double Cut-Out 
Cock. 


ARRANGEMENT OF APPARATUS. 


A piping diagram of the ET equipment is shown in 
Fig. 295. 

Air compressed by the pump passes as usual to the 
main reservoirs and the reservoir pipe. The main-reser- 
voir cut-out cock is to cut off the supply of air when 
removing any of the apparatus except the governor. The 
end toward the main reservoir is tapped for a connection 
to the maximum pressure head of the Pump Governor. 
When closed it discharges the air from the pipe between 
it and the automatic brake valve. 

Beyond the main-reservoir cut-out cock, the reser- 
voir pipe has four branches, one of which runs to the 
automatic brake valve, one to the feed valve, one to the 
reducing valve, and one to the distributing valve. Asa 
result, the automatic brake valve receives air from the 
main reservoir in two ways, one direct and the other 
through the Feed Valve. 

The Feed-Valve Pipe from the feed valve to the auto- 


ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


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ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 593 


matic brake valve has a branch to the top of the excess- 
pressure head of the duplex pump governor. 

The third branch of the reservoir pipe connects with 
the reducing valve. Air at the pressure for which this 
valve is set (45 pounds) is thus supplied to the indepen- 
dent brake valve through the reducing-valve pipe. When 
the signal system is installed, it is connected to the re- 
ducing valve pipe, in which, case the reducing valve takes 
the place of the signal reducing valve usually employed 
to supply the train air-signal system. In the branch pipe 
supplying the signal are placed a combined strainer and 
check-valve, and a special choke fitting. The former pre- 
vents any dirt from reaching the check valve and choke 
plug. The check valve prevents air from flowing back 
from the signal pipe when the independent brake is ap- 
plied. The choke plug prevents the reducing valve from 
raising the signal-pipe pressure so quickly as to destroy 
the operation of the signal. 


The distributing valve has five pipe connections, made 
through the double-chamber reservoir, three on the left 
and@=twovonsthertiont, Of the three on the jeit; the 
upper is the supply from the main reservoir; the inter- 
mediate is the double-heading pipe, leading through the 
double cut-out cock, when turned to cut out the brake 
valve from the brake pipe, to the automatic brake valve; 
and the lower is the application-chamber pipe, leading 
through the independent-brake valve, when the handle is 
in running position, to the automatic brake valve. Of 
the two on the right, the lower is the brake-pipe-branch 
connection, and the upper is the brake-cylinder pipe 
branching to all brake cylinders on the engine and tender. 
In this pipe are placed cocks for cutting out the brake 
cylinders when necessary, and in the engine truck and 


594 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


tender brake cylinder cut-out cocks are placed special 
choke fittings to prevent serious loss of main-reservoir 
air, and the release of the other locomotive brakes during 
a stop, in case of burst brake cylinder hose connection. 
The cylinder gauge is connected with the brake cylinder 
pipe. 

The automatic-brake-valve pipe connections, other than 
already mentioned, are the brake-pipe branch through the 
double cut-out cock, the main-reservoir, the equalizing 
reservoir, the duplex gauge, and the lower connection to 
the excess-pressure head of the pump governor. 





FIG. 296. DISTRIBUTING VALVE AND DOUBLE-CHAMBER 
RESERVOIR 


CONNECTIONS: 


SUP—Main-Reservoir Pipe; ABV—Double-Heading Pipe; 
SBV—Application-Chamber Pipe 


THE (Dis [he Ut UN Gey levies 


This valve is the important feature of the ET equip- 
ment. Fig. 296 is a photographic view of the left side of 
the valve and its double-chamber reservoir. The three 
pipe connections, as previously referred to, are plainly 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 595 


shown. Fig. 297 is a similar view of the right side, show- 
ing the pipe connections there and the two chambers of 





FIG, 297. DISTRIBUTING VALVE AND DOUBLE-CHAMBER 
RESERVOIR 


PIPE CONNECTIONS: 
Upper—Brake-Cylinder Pipe; Lower—Brake Pipe 
the reservoir; also the safety valve 34, which is an essen- 
tial part of the distributing valve. To simplify the tracing 
of the ports and connections, the various positions of this 


596 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 





FIG. 298. THE DISTRIBUTING VALVE, DIAGRAMMATIC 
CONNECTIONS: 


MR—Main-Reservoir Pipe; DH—Double-Heading Pipe; AC—Ap- 
plication-Chamber Pipe; BC—Brake Cylinder Pipe; BP--Brake 
Pipe 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 597 


valve are illustrated in ten diagrammatic drawings; that . 
is, the valve is distorted to show the parts differently than 
actually constructed, with the object of explaining the 
operation clearly instead of showing exactly how they 
are designed. The chambers of the reservoir are for con- 
venience indicated at the bottom as a portion of the valve 
itself. In Fig. 308, equalizing piston 26, graduating 
valve 28, and equalizing’ slide valve 31, are shown as 
actually constructed. But as there are ports in the valves 
which cannot thus be clearly indicated, the diagrammatic 
illustrations show each slide valve in two parts, one below 
and the other above the piston stem, with similar division 
of parts in the bush, 

Fig. 298 shows the operative parts in the same posi- 
tion as in Fig. 299 and is used merely for the sake of 
greater clearness. Referring to these figures it will be 
seen that main-reservoir pressure is always present in 
the chamber surrounding application valve 5 by its con- 
nection through passage a, a, to the main-reservoir pipe. 
Chambers 6 to the right of application piston Io are al- 
ways in free communication with the brake cylinder 
through passage c and brake-cylinder pipe. Chamber g 
at the left of application piston 10 is a portion of the 
application chamber, being always connected with it by 
passage h, and is also connected to the brake valves 
through the application-chamber pipe. 


INDEPENDENT APPLICATION. When the handle of the 
Independent Brake Valve is moved to the application 
position, air from the main reservoir, limited by the re- 
ducing valve to a maximum of 45 pounds, is allowed to 
flow to the application chamber, forcing application pis- 
ton 10 to the right as shown in Fig. 300. We will assume 
that 45 pounds is so admitted and maintained. This 


598 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


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FIG. 299. RELEASE, AUTOMATIC OR INDEPENDENT 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 599 










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FIG. 300. INDEPENDENT APPLICATION 


600 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


movement of application piston 10 causes exhaust valve 
16 to close exhaust ports e and d, and the graduating 
stem 19 to compress its spring; also open application 
valve 5 by its connection with the piston stem by pin 18. 
Main reservoir air then flows through port b and passage 
c to the -brake cylinders until their pressure and that in 
chamber b equals the application-chamber pressure, in 
this case 45 pounds. The graduating spring then forces 
the application piston ro to the left until application valve 
5 closes port b, but without moving exhaust valve 16. 
This position shown in Fig. 301 1s known as INDEPEND- 
ENT LAp. 

From the above description it will be seen that ap- 
plication piston 10 has application chamber pressure on 
one side and brake-cylinder pressure on the other. When 
either pressure varies, the piston will move toward the 
lower. Consequently if that in chamber b is reduced, by 
brake-cylinder leakage, the pressure maintained in the ap- 
plication chamber will force piston 10 to the right, open- 
ing application valve 5 and again admitting main reservoir 
air to the brake cylinders until the pressures on both 
sides of piston Io are again equal, when the graduating 
spring will force the piston back to lap position. In this 
way the brake-cylinder pressure is always maintained to 
that in the application chamber. This is called the pres- 
sure maintaining feature. 


INDEPENDENT RELEASE. When the handle of the in- 
dependent brake is moved to release position, a direct 
opening is made through the rotary valve from the ap- 
plication chamber to, the atmosphere. This permits the 
pressure in the application chamber to escape; therefore, 
as this pressure is being exhausted, brake-cylinder pres- 
sure in chamber b moves application piston 10 to the left, 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 601 





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CHAMBER. 


FIG. 301. INDEPENDENT LAP 


602 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


causing exhaust valve 16 to open exhaust ports e and d 
as shown in Fig, 299, thereby allowing brake-cylinder 
pressure to escape to the atmosphere. 

If the independent brake valve is returned to lap be- 
fore all of the application-chamber pressure has escaped, 
the application piston 10 will return to independent lap 
position as soon as the brake-cylinder pressure is reduced 
a little below that remaining in the application chamber. 


AUTOMAIMG{ OPERATION: 


During automatic operation of the brakes, the lower 
movable parts, known as the equalizing parts, are brought 
into action. 

AUTOMATIC RELEASE. Referring to Fig. 299, which 
shows the movable parts of the valve in the release posi- 
tion, it will be seen that as chamber p is connected to 
the brake pipe, brake-pipe air flows through the feed 
groove around the top of piston 26 into the chamber 
above the slide valve 31, and through port o to the pres- 
sure chamber, until the pressures on both sides of the 
piston are equal. | 

SERVICE. When a service application is made with 
the automatic brake valve, the brake-pipe pressure in 
chamber fp is reduced, causing a difference in pressure on 
the two sides of this piston, which results in the piston 
moving toward the right. The first movement of the 
piston closes the feed groove, and at the same time moves 
the graduating valve until it uncovers the upper end of 
port g in the equalizing slide valve 31. As the piston 
continues its movement, the shoulder on the end of its 
stem engages the slide valve, which is then also moved to 
the right until port ¢ in the slide valve registers with port 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 603 


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FIG. 302. AUTOMATIC SERVICE 


604 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


h in the seat. As the slide valve chamber is always in 
communication with the pressure chamber, air can now 
flow from it to the application chamber. This pressure 
forces application piston 10 to the right, as shown in 
Fig. 302, causing application valve 5 to uncover port b 
and allow main reservoir air to flow to the brake cylin- 
ders through port c, as in an independent application. 

During the movement just described, cavity ¢ in the 
graduating valve connects ports r and s in the equalizing 
slide valve, and by the same movement ports r and s are 
brought into register with ports h and / in the seat, thus 
establishing a communication from the application cham- 
ber to the safety-valve, which being set at 53 pounds, 
limits the brake-cylinder pressure to this amount during 
a full service application. 

The amount of pressure resulting in the application 
chamber for a certain brake-pipe reduction, depends on 
the comparative volumes of the application and pressure 
chambers. These volumes are such that with 70 pounds 
in the pressure chamber and nothing in the application 
chamber, if they are allowed to remain connected by the 
ports in the slide valve, they will equalize at about 50 
pounds. 


ServicE Lap. The conditions just described continue 
until the pressure in the pressure chamber is reduced 
enough below that in the brake pipe to cause the dif- 
ference in pressure on the two sides of piston 26 to 
force it and graduating valve 28 to the left until the 
shoulder on the piston stem strikes the right-hand end of 
slide valve 31, the position indicated in Fig. 303, and 
known as ServicE Lap. In this position, graduating 
valve 28 has closed port ¢ so that no more air can flow 
from the pressure chamber to the application chamber ; 


‘3dld SNIGVAH-318N0G 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 605 


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606 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


and it also has closed port s, cutting off communication 
to the safety valve. The flow of air past application 
valve 5 to the brake cylinders continues until their pres- 
sure equals that in the application chamber when the 
graduating spring forces piston 10 to the position shown 
in Fig. 303, closing port b. The brake-cylinder pressure 
is then practically the same as that in the application 
chamber. 

It will be seen that whatever pressure exists in the 
application chamber will be maintained in the brake cyl- 
inder by the “pressure maintaining” feature already de- 
scribed. 

When the automatic brake valve is placed in release 
position, and the brake-pipe pressure in chamber fp is 
increased above that in the pressure chamber, equalizing 
piston 26 moves to the left, carrying with it equalizing 
slide valve 31 and graduating valve 28 to the release 
position as shown in Fig. 299. The feed groove now 
being open permits the pressure in the pressure chamber 
to equalize with that in the brake pipe as before de- 
scribed. This action does not release the locomotive 
brakes because it does not discharge application chamber 
pressure. The double-heading pipe is closed at the double 
cut-out cock, and the application chamber pipe is closed 
by the rotary valve of the automatic brake valve. There- 
fore, to release the locomotive brakes, the automatic 
brake valve must be moved to running position, or the 
independent brake valve must be held in release position, 
in which positions the rotary valve of either will connect 
the application chamber pipe with the atmosphere. As 
the application chamber pressure escapes, the cylinder 
pressure will force application piston 10 to the left until 






‘3dld DNIGVSH-318N0a 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 607 











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FIG. 304. EMERGENCY 


608 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


exhaust valve 16 uncovers exhaust ports d and e, allow- 
ing brake-cylinder pressure to escape. 


EMERGENCY. When a sudden and heavy brake-pipe 
reduction is made, as in an emergency application, the 
pressure in the pressure chamber forces application piston 
26 to the right until it strikes against the leather gasket 
beneath head 23 as shown in Fig. 304. This movement 
causes slide valve 31 to uncover port / in the bush, mak- 
ing a large opening from the pressure chamber to the 
application chamber, so that they quickly become equal- 
ized. In the emergency position of the automatic brake 
valve, the volume of the equalizing reservoir is con- 
nected to that of the application chamber. This reservoir 
volume, together with that of the pressure chamber at 
70 pounds pressure, equalizes into the application chamber 
at about 60 pounds. The dotted port m in the slide valve 
registers with port 7 in the seat connecting with supply 
passage a, allowing air from the main reservoir to enter 
the slide valve and application chambers. A cavity in 
the slide valve registers with port ) in the seat. Port r 
in the slide valve registers with port / leading to the 
safety valve. The cavity and port r in the slide valve are 
connected by a small port, the size of which permits the 
air in the application chambers to escape a little faster 
than ports m and m can supply it, preventing the pressure 
from rising above the amount desired. 

In High-Speed Brake Service, the feed valve is regu- 
lated for 110 pounds brake-pipe pressure instead of 70, 
and main-reservoir pressure is 130 or 140 pounds. Un- 
der these conditions an emergency application raises the 
application chamber pressure to about 85 pounds, but the 
area of the small passage to port r is so proportioned 
that the flow of application-chamber pressure to the safety 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 609 




















































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FIG. 305. EMERGENCY LAP 


610 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


valve is just enough greater than the supply through m, 
to decrease that pressure in practically the same time 
and manner as is done by the high-speed reducing valve, 
until it is approximately 60 pounds. The application por- 
tion operates similarly to, but more quickly than, in the 
service application. 

EMERGENCY Lap. The above conditions continue un- 
til the brake cylinder pressure equals the apflication- 
chamber pressure, when parts of the valve assume the 
position known as the Emergency Lap and shown in 
Fig. 305. 

The release after an emergency is the same as that 
following service applications. 

Fig. 306 shows the position the distributing valve 
parts will assume, if the application-chamber pressure is 
discharged by the independent brake valve during an 
automatic application. This results in the upper movable 
portion going to the release position, and relieving brake- 
cylinder pressure, without changing the conditions in 
either the pressure-chamber or chamber p; consequently, 
the equalizing portion does not move, until released by the 
automatic brake valve, 


DousLte Heaprinc. It will be noted that in all of the 
above descriptions of the distributing valve, no refer- 
ence has been made to the double-heading pipe connec- 
tion. This is only used when the engine does not control 
the train brakes, and it then becomes an exhaust opening 
for the distributing valve when the automatic brake valve 
is on lap, and cut off from the brake pipe by the double 
cut-out cock. This will be better understood from the 
description of the pipe connections as already explained. 
The operation of the distributing valve is similar to that 
described during automatic brake applications with the 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 611 








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FIG. 306. RELEASE POSITION 


When Locomotive Brake is released by Independent Brake Valve 
fter an anplication by Brake Pipe Reduction 


612 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 





PLAN OF 
GRAQUATING VALVE. 





FIG. 307. GRADUATING VALVE, EQUALIZING SLIDE 
VALVE, AND SLIDE VALVE SEAT 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 613 


exception of the release, which is brought about by the 
equalizing piston 26 moving to the release position and 
causing exhaust cavity in the equalizing slide valve 31 


FO RPELICATION CHAURER 





By 
FIG. 308. DISTRIBUTING VALV 


CONNECTIONS: 
MR—Main Reservoir Pipe; DH—Double-Heading Pipe; AC—Ap- 
plication-Chamber Pipe; BC—Brake-Cylinder Pipe; BP—Brake 
Pipe 


to connect ports 7 and h in the slide valve seat, thereby 
permitting the pressure in the application chamber to 
escape to the atmosphere through the double heading 


614 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


pipe, the double cut-out cock, and the automatic brake 
valve. In double heading, therefore, the release of the 
distributing valve is similar to that of a triple valve. 

To remove piston 10 and slide valve 16, it is abso- 
lutely necessary to first remove cover 3, slide valve 5 and 
valve pin 18. 

Referring to Figs 298 and 308, the proper names 
of parts of this apparatus are as follows: 2, Body; 3, 
Application-Valve Cover; 4, Cover Screw; 5, Applica- 
tion Valve; 6, Application-Valve Spring; 7, Application- 
Cylinder Cover; 8, Cylinder-Cover Bolt and Nut; 9, 
Cylinder-Cover Gasket; 10, Application Piston; 11, Pis- 
ton Follawer; 12, Packing-Leather Expander; 13, Pack- 
ing Leather; 14, Application-Piston Nut; 15, Applica- 
tion-Piston Packing Ring; 16, Exhaust Valve; 17, Ex- 
haust-Valve Spring; 18, Application-Valve Pin; 109, 
Graduating Stem; 20, Graduating Spring; 21, Graduat- 
ing-Stem Nut; 22, Upper Cap Nut; 23, Equalizing Cyl- 
inder Cap; 24, Cylinder Cap Bolt and Nut; 25, Cylinder- 
Cap Gasket; 26, Equalizing Piston; 27, Equalizing-Pis- 
ton Packing Ring; 28, Graduating Valve; 29, Graduat- 
ing-Valve Spring; 31, Equalizing Slide Valve; 32, Equal- 
izing-Slide-Valve Spring; 33, Lower Cap Nut; 34, Safety 
Valve; 35, Double-Chamber Reservoir; 36, Reservoir 
Stud and Nut; 37, Reservoir Drain Plug; 38, Distribut- 
ing-Valve Drain Plug; 39, Application-Valve-Cover 
Gasket; 40, Application Piston Cotter; 41, Distributing- 
Valve Gasket. 

Tig. 309 is a sectional view of the safety valve which 
is a necessary part of the distributing valve. It is of an 
improved type, which insures reliability of operation. It 
is unlike the ordinary safety valve, as its construction is 
such as to cause it to close quickly with a “pop” action, 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 615 


insuring its seating firmly. It is very sensitive in opera- 
tion, and responds to very slight differences of pressure. 


The names of the parts are: 


4, Valve; 5, Stem Valve; 6, Adjusting Spring; 7, Ad- 
justing Nut. 


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WIS USS 


FIG. 309. SAFETY VALVE 


Valve 4 is held to its seat by the compression of the 
spring 6 between the stem and adjusting nut 7. When 
the pressure below valve 4 is in excess of the force ex- 
erted by the spring, it raises, being guided in its move- 
ment by the brass bush in the body 2. Ports are drilled 
in this bush; one outward through the body to the at- 
mosphere, and the other upward to the spring chamber. 


Pe DOdy, saraGapeNut; 


616 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Although only one of each of these is shown in the cut, 
there are eight of the first and two of the second. As 
the valve moves upward, its lift is determined by the 
stem 5 striking the cup nut 3. It closes the vertical ports 
connecting the valve and spring chambers and opens the 
lower ports to the atmosphere. As the air pressure be- 
Jow valve 4 decreases, and the tension of the spring 
forces the stem and valve downward, the valve gradually 
closes the lower ports to the atmosphere, and opens those 
between the valve and spring chambers. The discharge 
air pressure then has access to the spring chamber. This 
chamber is always connected to the atmosphere by two 
small holes through the body 2; the air from the valve 
chamber enters more rapidly than it can escape through 
these holes, causing pressure to accumulate above the 
valve, and close it with the “pop” action before men- 
tioned, 

The adjustment of this safety valve is accomplished 
by removing cap nut 3, and screwing up or down on ad- 
justing nut 7. After the proper adjustment is made, cap 
nut 3 must be replaced and securely tightened, and the 
valve operated a few times. Particular attention must 
be given to the holes in the valve body to see that they are 
open, and that they are of the proper size, especially the 
two upper holes. 

This safety valve should be adjusted for 53 pounds. 


THE TYPE AU TOV ie Shit Pay tie 


This Brake Valve, although modeled to a consider- 
able extent upon the principles of previous valves, is 
necessarily different in detail, since it not only performs 
all the functions of such types, but also those absolutely 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 617 


necessary to obtain all the desirable operating features 
of the Distributing Valve. 

Fig. 310 is taken from a photograph of this brake 
valve, while Fig. 311 shows two views, the upper one 
being a plan view with section through the rotary-valve 
chamber, the rotary valve being removed; the lower one 
a vertical section. In these views the pipe connections 
are indicated, 





FIG. 310. TYPE H BRAKE VALVE 


Fig. 312 is a top view, showing the six positions of 
the brake-valve handle, which are, beginning at the ex- 
treme left, Release, Running, Holding, Lap, Service and 


Emergency. 


618 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 





ROTARY-VALVE SEAT, 





FIG. 311. TYPE H BRAKE VALVE 


CONNECTIONS: 
FV—Feed-Valve Pipe; MR—Main-Reservoir Pipe; GO—To Gov- 
ernor; DH—Double Heading Pipe; EX—Exhaust; AC—Appli- 
cation-Chamber Pipe; BP—Brake Pipe; GA—Duplex Air 
Gauge; ER—Equalizing Reservoir 





ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 619 


Fig. 313 shows two views of this valve similar to 
those of Fig. 311, with the addition of a plan or top view 
of the rotary valve. Referring to the latter, a, j and s are 
ports extending directly through it, the latter connecting 
with a groove im the face; 7 and & are cavities in the valve 


BuTomstic Besre yrAtve. 





face; o is the exhaust cavity; + is a port in the face of 
the vaive connecting with o; / is a port in the face which 
passes over cavity k and connects with exhaust cavity o; 
m is a groove in the face. Referring to the ports in the 
rotary-valve seat, d leads to the feed-valve pipe; 6 and c 
lead to the brake pipe; g¢ leads to chamber D; Ex is the 
exhaust opening; ¢ is the preliminary exhaust port lead- 





620 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 





EXCESS PRESSURE HEAD OF 
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FPELEASE 


BRAKE PIPE PRESSURED 






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[ears Se Sea] 


EQUALIZING RESERVOIR, 


FIG. 313. AUTOMATIC BRAKE VALVE 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 621 
ing to chamber D; r is the warning port leading to the 
exhaust; fp is the port leading to the pump governor; / 
leads to the application-chamber pipe; 2 leads to the 
double-heading pipe. 


In describing the operation of the brake valve, it will 
be more readily understood if the positions are taken up 
in the order in which they are most generally used, rather 
than their regular order as mentioned above. 


RUNNING Position. This is the proper position of 
the handle to release the engine and tender brakes; also 
when the brakes are not being used, and the system is 
charged and ready for an application. In this position, 
cavity f in the rotary valve connects ports b and d in the 
valve seat, affording a large direct passage from the feed 
valve to the brake pipe, so that the latter will charge up 
as rapidly as the feed valve can supply the air, but cannot 
attain a pressure above that for which the feed valve is 
adjusted. Cavity k in the rotary valve connects ports c 
and g in the valve seat, so that chamber D, and the equal- 
izing reservoir charge uniformly with the brake pipe, 
keeping the pressures on the two sides of the equalizing 
piston equal. Port s in the rotary valve registers with 
port p in the valve seat, permitting main-reservoir pres- 
sure, which is present at all times above the rotary valve, 
to pass to the excess-pressure head of the pump governor. 
Port h in the rotary valve registers with port / in the seat 
connecting the application chamber pipe to the exhaust 
cavity EX. 


SERVICE Position. This position gives a gradual re- 
duction of brake-pipe pressure to cause a service appli- 
cation. Port h in the rotary valve registers with port s 
in the valve seat, allowing air from chamber D and the 


622 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


equalizing reservoir to escape to the atmosphere through 
cavities o in the rotary valve and Ex in the valve seat. 
Port e is restricted so as to make the pressure in the 
equalizing reservoir, and chamber D fall gradually. As 
all other ports are closed, the fall of pressure in chamber 
D allows the brake-pipe pressure under the equalizing 
piston to raise it, and unseat the discharge valve, allow- 
ing brake-pipe air to flow to the atmosphere. When the 
pressure in chamber D is reduced the desired amount, 
the handle is moved to the lap position, thus stopping 
any further reduction in that chamber. Air will continue 
to discharge from the brake-pipe until its pressure has 
fallen to an amount a trifle less than that retained in 
chamber D, permitting the pressure in this chamber to 
force the piston downward and stop the discharge of 
brake-pipe air. It will be seen, therefore, that the amount 
of reduction in the equalizing reservoir determines that 
in the brake pipe, regardless of the length of the train. 

Lap Position. This position is used while holding 
the brakes applied after a service application until it is 
desired either to make a further brake-pipe reduction, or 
to release them; also to prevent loss of main-reservoir 
pressure of the release of the brake in the event of a 
burst hose, a break-in-two, or the opening of the con- 
ductor’s valve. Lap position is also used on all engines 
in a train that are not controlling the train brakes, as, 
with the handle in this position, port h in the rotary valve 
connects with port # in the seat. Therefore, when the 
double cut-out cock is turned to the position which cuts 
out the brake pipe, it makes a direct opening from port 1 
in the distributing valve through the double-heading pipe 
to the atmosphere, and is the passage through which the 
air escapes from the application chamber when the 
automatic brakes are being released, 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 623 


RELEASE Position. The purpose of this position is 
to provide a large and direct passage from the main reser- 
voir to the brake pipe, to permit a rapid flow of air into 
the latter, to insure a quick release and recharging of the 
train brakes, but without releasing the engine and tender 
brakes. 

Air at main-reservoir pressure flows through port a 
in the rotary valve to port b in the valve seat and to the 
brake pipe. At the same time, port 7 in the rotary valve 
registers with the equalizing port g in the valve seat, per- 
mitting main-reservoir pressure to enter chamber D above 
the equalizing piston. 

In this position, port s in the rotary valve registers 
with warning port r in the seat and allows a small quan- 
tity of air to escape into the exhaust cavity Ex, which 
makes sufficient noise to attract the engineer’s attention 
to the position in which the valve handle is standing. If 
the handle is allowed to remain in this position, the brake 
system would be charged to main-reservoir pressure. To 
avoid this, the handle must be moved to Running or 
Holding Positions. The small groove in the face of the 
rotary valve which connects with port s, extends to port 
p in the valve seat, allowing main-reservoir pressure to 
flow to the excess-pressure head of the pump governor. 


Hotpine Position. This position is so named be- 
cause the locomotive brakes are held applied, as they are 
in release position, while the train brakes feed up to the 
feed-valve pressure. All ports register as in running 
position, except port J, which is closed. 

Therefore, the only difference between Running and 
Holding Positions is, that in the former the application 
chamber is open to the atmosphere, while in the latter it 
is not. 


624 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


EMERGENCY Position. This position is used when 
the most prompt and heavy application of the brakes 
is desired. Port x in the rotary valve registers with port 
c in the valve seat, making a large and direct communi- 
cation between the brake pipe and atmosphere through 
cavity o in the rotary valve and Ex in the valve seat. 
This direct passage causes a sudden and heavy discharge 
of brake-pipe pressure, causing the triple valves and dis- 
tributing valve to go to the-emergency position and apply 
the brake in the shortest possible time. 

In this position the groove m in the rotary valve con- 
nects ports g and / in the valve seat, thereby allowing 
equalizing reservoir air to flow into the application cham- 
ber. | : 

The oil plug 29 is placed in the top case 4, at a point 
to fix the level of the oil surrounding the rotary valve. 
Leather washer 8 prevents air in the rotary valve cham- 
ber from leaking past the rotary valve key to the at- 
mosphere. Spring 30 keeps the rotary valve key firmly 
pressed against washer 8 when no main-reservoir pres- 
sure is present, The handle 9 contains a latch 11, which 
fits into notches in the top case, so located as to indi- 
cate the different positions of the brake valve handle. 
The spring 10 back of the latch forces the latter against 
the body with sufficient pressure to distinctly sae 
when the handle arrives at each position. 

To remove the brake valve take off nuts 27, thus 
allowing it to come away without disturbing the pipe 
bracket, or breaking any pipe joints. To take the valve 
proper apart, remove cap screws 28. 

The brake valve should be located so that the engi- 
neer can operate it from his usual position, while looking 
forward or back out of the side-cab window, and in such 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 625 


a manner that the handle will not meet with any obstruc- 
tion throughout its entire movement. 

The oil around the rotary valve furnishes thorough lu- 
brication. Valve oil should be used for this purpose. 

Fig. 313 shows all the principal parts, the proper 
names of each being as follows: 2, Bottom Case; 3, 
Rotary-Valve Seat;::4; Top Case; 5, Pipe *Bracket; 6, 
Rotary Valve; 7, Rotary-Valve Key; 8, Key Washer; 9, 
Handle; 10, Handle-Latch Spring; 11, Handle Latch; 12, 
Handle-Latch Screw; 13, Handle Nut; 14, Handle Lock 
Nut; 15, Equalizing Piston; 16, Equalizing-Piston Pack- 
ing Ring; 17, Valve-Seat Upper Gasket; 18, Valve-Seat 
Lower Gasket; 19, Pipe-Bracket Gasket ; 20, Small Union 
Nut; 21, Brake-Valve Tee; 22, Small Union Swivel; 23, 
Large Union Nut; 24, Large Union Swivel; 25, Bracket 
Stud; 26, Bracket-Stud Nut; 27, Bolt and Nut; 28, Cap 
Screw ; 29, Oil Plug; 30, Rotary-Valve Spring. 


THE INDEPENDENT BRAKE VALVE. 


Fig. 314 illustrates this valve, which is of the rotary 
type. Fig. 315 shows a vertical section through the cen- 
ter of the valve, and a horizontal section through the 
valve body, with the rotary valve removed, showing 
the rotary valve seat. Fig. 316 shows this valve simi- 
larly to Fig. 315, with the addition of a top view of the 
rotary valve. In these views, the pipe connections and 
positions of the handle are indicated. Port 0b in the seat 
leads to the supply connection from the main reservoir 
through the Reducing Valve. Port c leads to that portion 
of the application-chamber pipe which connects to the 
-automatic-brake valve. Port d leads to that portion of 
the application-chamber pipe which connects the dis- 


626 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


tributing valve. Port h, in the center, is the exhaust port 
leading directly to the atmosphere. Exhaust cavity g in 
the rotary valve is always in communication with ex- 
haust port h. Groove e in the face of the valve communi- 
cates at one end with a port through the valve. This 
groove is always in communication with supply port 5), 
and through the opening just mentioned air is admitted 





FIG, 314. THE INDEPENDENT BRAKE VALVE 


to the chamber above the rotary valve, thus keeping it 
to its seat. Port f in the rotary valve consists of two 
circular openings in the face joined by a cylindrical pas- 
sage over the top of cavity g. 

RunninG Position. This is the position that the 
independent brake valve should be carried in at all times 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 627 





FIG. 315. INTERIOR VIEW OF THE INDEPENDENT: 
BRAKE VALVE 


CONNECTIONS: 


BV—Application-Chamber Pipe to Automatic Brake Valve; 
EX—Exhaust; AC—Application-Chamber Pipe to Dis- 
tributing Valve; MR—Reducing-Valve Pipe 


628 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


when the independent brake is not in use. Port f in the 
rotary valve connects ports c and d in the valve seat, thus 
establishing communication between the application cham- 
ber of the distributing valve and port / of the automatic 
brake valve. Therefore, it will be seen that if the auto- 
matic brake valve is in running position, and the inde- 
pendent brakes applied, they can be released by return- 
ing the independent valve to running position. 

SERVICE PosiTIon. To apply the independent brakes, 
move the brake valve to the application position; groove 
e connects ports b and d, allowing air to flow to the ap- 
plication chamber of the distributing valve. Since the 
supply pressure to this valve is fixed by the regulation of 
the reducing valve to 45 pounds, this is the maximum 
cylinder pressure that can be obtained. 


Lap Position. This position is used to hold the in- 
dependent brakes applied after the desired cylinder pres- 
sure is obtained, at which time all communication between 
operating ports is closed. 

RELEASE Position. This position is used to release 
the pressure from the application chamber when the auto- 
matic brake valve is not in running position. In this 
position, the offset in cavity g registers with port d, 
allowing pressure in the application chamber to flow 
through ports d, g and h to the atmosphere. 

In order to prevent leaving the handle in the release 
position, and thereby make it impossible to operate the 
locomotive brakes by the automatic brake valve, spring 
Q automatically returns handle 15 from the release to the 
running position. 

The purpose of the oil plug 20 is the same as that 
described in the automatic brake valve. 

The location of this valve should be governed by the 


629 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 


Plan of Rotary 






DISTRIBUTING VALE 









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INTERIOR VIEWS OF THE INDEPENDENT 





AUTOMATIC BRAKE VALVE 


BRAKE VALVE 


FIG, 316, 


630 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


same considerations as those mentioned concerning the 
automatic brake valve. The names of its parts are as fol- 
lows, referring to Fig. 316. 

2, Rotary-Valve Seat; 3, Valve Body; 4, Pipe Bracket ; 
5, Rotary Valve; 6, Rotary-Valve Key; 7, Rotary-Valve 
Spring; 8, Key Washer; 9, Return-Spring; 10, Return- 
Spring Casing; 11, Casing Screw; 12, Return-Spring 
Clutch; 13, Cover; #4,°Cover: Screw? 15, Elandle;716; 
Handle Nut; 17, Latch Spring; 18, Latch; 19, Latch 
Screw; 20, Oil Plug; 21, Upper Gasket ; 22, Lower Gas- 
ket; 23, Bracket Stud; 24, Bracket-Stud Nut; 25, Bolt 
and Nut; 26, Cap and Screw. 


THB BDA AV: 


This valve, Fig. 317, is a slide-valve feed valve of an 
improved type, and with this equipment is connected 
to a pipe bracket located in the piping between the main 
reservoir and the automatic brake valve, receiving its 
supply of air from the main-reservoir pipe, and delivering 
it into the feed-valve pipe. It is for the purpose of con- 
trolling brake-pipe pressure when the automatic brake 
valve handle is in running or holding positions. 

Figs. 318 and 319 are diagrammatic views of the 
valve and pipe bracket having the ports and operating 
parts in one plane to facilitate description. It consists of 
two sets of parts, the supply and regulating. The supply 
parts, which control the flow of air through the valve, 
consist of the supply valve Io, and its spring 11; the 
supply-valve piston 8 and its spring 6. The regulating 
parts consist of the regulating valve 13, regulating-valve 
spring 14, diaphragm 15, diaphragm spindle 17, regulat- 
ing handle 23. Main-reservoir air enters through port 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 631 


a, a to the supply-valve chamber B, forcing supply-valve 
piston 8 to the left, compressing piston spring 6 and caus- 
ing supply valve 10 to open port c, permitting the air to 
pass through ports c and d to the feed-valve pipe at de- 
livery, and through port e to diaphragm chamber L. 





FIG. 317. FEED VALVE 


At the same time air flows through port f in supply- 
valve piston 8 to chamber G, and through port 
h to regulating-valve chamber H. As _ regulating- 
valve 13 is raised from its seat, it will flow through port 
k to chamber L. When the feed-valve-pipe pressure, 
which is always present in chamber L against the dia- 


632 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 
phragm, exceeds the pressure of regulating spring 18, 
the diaphragm will yield and permit the regulating valve 
13 to be forced to its seat, closing port k and cutting off 


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SUPPLY 4 ~ DELIVERY 
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FIG. 318. DIAGRAM OF FEED VALVE, CLOSED 


any further flow of air from chamber G. As the air 
which continues to flow through port f will quickly equal- 
ize the pressure on both sides of piston 8, spring 6 will 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 633 


force the piston to the right, moving supply valve ro and 
closing port c, thereby cutting off communication between 
the supply and the feed-valve pipe. 








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FIG. 319. DIAGRAM OF FEED VALVE, OPEN 


When the pressure in the feed-valve pipe falls below 
that for which the valve is adjusted, regulating spring 18 
will force the diaphragm forward, unseat regulating valve 


634 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


13, and permit the accumulated air pressure in chamber 
G to escape through port h, chamber H, and port k to 
chamber L. This allows main-reservoir pressure in 
chamber B to force the supply valve piston 8 to left, and 
open port c, which again permits air to pass to the feed- 
valve pipe until its pressure has been restored to the 
proper amount. Since this feed valve has a duplex ad- 
justing arrangement, it eliminates the necessity of the two 
feed valves in high, and low pressure service, as the turn- 
ing of handle 23 until its pin strikes stops 20, or 21 
changes the regulation from one predetermined brake- 
pipe pressure to another. | 

To adjust this valve, slacken screw 22, which allows 
stops 20 and 21 to turn around spring box 19. Adjusting 
handle 23 should be turned until the valve closes at the 
lower brake pipe pressure desired, when stop 21 should 
be brought in contact with the handle pin, at which point 
it should be securely fastened by tightening screw 22. 
Adjusting handle 23 should then be turned until the 
higher adjustment is obtained, when stop 20 is brought 
in contact with the handle pin and securely fastened. 

The names of the parts shown in the diagram, Figs. 
318 and 319, are as follows: 2, Valve Body; 3, Pipe 
Bracket; 5, Cap Nut; 6, Piston Spring; 7, Piston-Spring 
Tip; 8, Supply-Valve Piston; 9, Piston Packing Ring; 
10, Supply Valve; 11, Supply-Valve Spring; 12, Regu- 
lating-Valve Cap; 13, Regulating Valve; 14, Regulating- 
Valve Spring; 15, Diaphragm; 16, Diaphragm Ring; 17, 
Diaphragm Spindle; 18, Regulating Spring; 19, Spring 
Box; 20, Upper stop ;i21, lower stop 1.22, stop. scren. 
23, Adjusting Handle, 


ET BRAKE EQUIP MENT 635 


REDUCING VALVE. 


Fig. 320 is a photograph of the exterior of this valve 
connected to its pipe bracket, the construction and opera- 





FIG. 320. REDUCING VALVE 


tion of which is the same as the feed valve just described, 
with the exception of the adjusting feature, this valve 
being designed for single adjustment only. 


Do ee WNP GOVERNOR: 


Fig. 321 shows a sectional view of this governor in 
its normal position. By reference to the piping diagram 
in Fig. 295 it will be noted that the connection B leads to 
the boiler; P to the air pump; MR to the main reservoir ; 


636 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


ABV to the automatic brake valve; FVP to the feed- 
valve pipe; W is the waste-pipe connection. Steam en- 
ters at B and passes by steam valve 26 to the connection 
P and to the pump. Air from the main reservoir flows 


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FIG. 321. PUMP GOVERNOR 


through the automatic brake valve to the connection 
marked ABV into chamber d below diaphragm 52. Air 
from the teed-valve pipe enters at the connection FVP 
and passes to the chamber above the diaphragm, adding 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 637 


to the pressure of regulating spring 51 in holding it 
down. As this spring is adjusted to a compression of 
about 20 pounds, the diaphragm will be held down until 
the main reservoir-pressure in chamber d exceeds the 
feed-valve pipe pressure by this amount. At such time, 
diaphragm 52 will raise, unseating its pin valve, and allow 
air to flow through port b to the chamber above the gov- 
ernor piston, forcing it downward, compressing its spring 
and seating steam valve 26. When main-reservoir pres- 
sure in chamber d is reduced, the combined spring and 
air pressures above the diaphragm force it down, seating 
its pin valve. The pressure in port b, and the chamber 
above the governor piston, which is always able to escape 
a little from the vent port c, will then escape to the atmos- 
phere and allow the piston spring, and steam pressure 
below valve 26, to raise it, and the governor piston to the 
position shown. The connection from the main reservoir 
to chamber d is open only when the automatic brake-valve 
handle is in release, running or holding positions; in the 
other positions it is closed, at which times this governor 
head is cut out of action. The connection marked MR 
in the maximum pressure head is always in communica- 
tion with the main reservoir, so that when the excess 
pressure head is cut out by the brake valve, this head 
controls the pump. When main-reservoir pressure in 
chamber a exceeds the compression of adjusting spring 
41, diaphragm 42 will raise its pin valve and allow air to 
flow through port b to the chamber above the governor 
piston, controlling the pump as above described. 

As each governor head has a vent port c, from which 
air escapes whenever pressure is present in port b, to 
avoid an unnecessary waste of air, one of these should 
be plugged. 


638 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


To adjust this governor, remove the cap nut and turn 
adjusting nut 50 until the compression of spring 51 is 
equal to the excess of pressure desired. 


QUESTIONS 


949. In what respect does the new ET. Locomotive 
brake equipment differ materially from the standard auto- 
matic and straight air brake? 

950. Can the ET. equipment be applied to any loco- 
motive; no matter what kind of service? 

951. Mention one of the principal advantages in con- 
nection with the design of the valves. 

952. What are the three important advantages con- 
nected with its operation? 

953. What can be said regarding the manipulation of 
the ET. brake, and the automatic and straight air brake? 

954. In what position should the handle be, when not 
in use? 

955. When it is desired to apply the locomotive and 
train brakes, how must the automatic brake valve handle 
be moved? 

956. Describe the method of releasing the train brakes. 

957. Describe the method of making an emergency 
application. 

958. In order to make a smooth and accurate, two 
application passenger stop, what should be done? 

959. Describe the proper method of making and re- 
leasing an independent application. 

960. How should the independent brake be operated, 
when handling long trains on the road, or in switching 
service? | 


QUESTIONS 639 


961. How may the engine brakes only be released, 
and still leave the train brakes applied? 

g62. What should be done with the train brakes be- 
fore detaching the engine? 


963. Should the automatic brakes be used to hold a 
train or engine standing on a grade, for any length of 
time? 

964. What is the safest way to hold a train standing 
on a grade? 

965. Describe the proper method of stopping a de- 
scending train, and then holding it with the independent 
brake. 


966. In what position should the independent brake 
valve handle be left when the engine is standing at a 
coal chute or water plug? 


967. In what position should the handle of the auto- 
matic brake valve be placed in case of an accidental ap- 
plication—such as a bursted hose, or break in two of 
train? 

968. In case there are two or more engines in a train, 
what should be done with the air equipment of each one, 
except the one from which the brakes are being handled? 

969. What should be done with the brake equipment 
on the engine, before leaving the roundhouse? 

970. Name the various parts of the equipment, and the 
purpose of each. 

g71. Name the different parts of the piping apper- 
taining to the ET equipment. 

972. What are the functions of the main reservoir cut- 
out cock? 

973. In what two ways does the automatic brake valve 
receive air from the main reservoir? 


640 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


974. How many connections has the distributing 
valve? | 

975. What are the functions of the first three of these 
connections ? 

976. For what purpose are the other two? 

977. What is the important feature of the ET brake 
equipment ? 

978. Describe briefly what takes place within the dis- 
tributing valve during an independent application. 

979. What causes independent lap? 

980. Between what two pressures does the application 
piston of the distributing valve vibrate? 

981. How is the pressure maintained in the brake 
cylinders during an application? 

982. How is independent release accomplished? 

983. How may independent lap be again resumed? 

984. What parts are brought into action during auto- 
matic operation? 


. 985. Describe in general terms what occurs within 
the distributing valve during a service application of the 
automatic brake. 


986. Upon what does the amount of pressure in the 
application chamber of the distributing valve depend? 

987. What causes the position known as service lap? 

988. Does the pressure maintaining feature also apply 
to automatic application ? 

989. Are the engine brakes released when the auto- 
matic brake valve is placed in release position? 

g9go. What, then, must be done in order to release the 
engine brakes? 

g9t. What takes place within the distributing valve 
during an emergency application ? 


QUESTIONS 641 


992. What pressures are carried for high speed brake 
service ? 

993. Under these conditions, what pressure is attained 
in the application chamber ? 

994. What conditions are necessary to cause the parts 
of the valve to assume the position known as emergency 
lap? 

995. What is the purpose of the double-heading pipe 
connection ? 

996. Describe the action of the safety valve. 

997. How is this valve adjusted, and for what pres- 
sure? 

998. In what respect does type H automatic brake 
valve differ from previous types? 

999. When should the handle be kept in running posi- 
tion? 

1000. What does service position give? 

1001. For what purpose is lap position used? 

1002. What is the purpose of release position? 

1003. What results follow, when the valve is placed 
in holding position? 

1004. Explain the difference between running and 
holding position. | 

1005. When is emergency position used? 

1006. Of what type is the independent brake valve? 

1007. In what position should this valve be carried 
when not in use? 

1008. Describe the service position of this valve. 

1oog. When is lap position used for the independent 
brake valve? 

1010. When is release position used? 

to11. What type of valve, and for what purpose is the 
feed valve? , 


642 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


1012. Describe the construction and operation of the 
reducing valve. 

1013. Describe the construction and operation of the 
pump governor. 

1014. What is the “Dead Engine Feature’? 

IoI5. Of what parts does it consist? 

1016. How is the air for operating the brakes on a 
dead engine supplied? 

1017. Describe briefly the route that the air takes 
under such conditions. 

1018, What is the function of the strainer? 

> 


Mie DEA DsENGIN bie RE ATOR Ee 


The “Dead Engine” feature shown in Fig. 295 is 
for the operation of the locomotive brakes when the 
pump on a locomotive in a train is inoperative through 
being broken down, or by reason of no steam. Fig. 322 
shows the combined strainer, check valve, and choke 
fitting. As these parts are not required at other times, a 
cut-out cock is provided. This cock should be kept 
closed except under the conditions just mentioned. The 
air for operating the brakes on such a locomotive must 
then be supplied through the brake pipe from the loco- 
motive operating the train brakes. 





FIG. 322. COMBINED AIR STRAINER AND CHECK VALVE 


With the cut-out cock open, air from the brake pipe 
enters at BP, Fig. 322, passes through the curled hair 
strainer, lifts check valve 4, held to its seat by a strong 
spring, passes through the choke bushing, and out at 
MR to the main-reservoir, thus providing pressure for 


operating the brakes on this locomotive. The double- 


643 


644 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


heading cock should be closed, and the handle of each 
brake valve should be in running position. Where ab- 
sence of water in the boiler, or other reason, justifies 
keeping the maximum braking power of such a loco- 
motive lower than the standard, this can be accomplished 
by reducing the adjustment of the safety valve on the 
distributing valve. It can also be reduced at will by the 
independent brake valve. 

The strainer protects the check valve and choke from 
dirt. Spring 2 over the check valve insures this valve 
seating and, while assuring an ample pressure to operate 
the locomotive brakes, keeps the main-reservoir pressure 
somewhat lower than the brake-pipe pressure, thereby 
reducing any leakage from the former. The choke pre- 
vents a sudden drop in brake-pipe pressure and the ap- 
plication of the train brakes, as would otherwise occur 
with an uncharged main reservoir cut in to a charged 
brake pipe. In this, it operates similarly to the feed 
groove in a triple valve. 


THE TYPE “K” FREIGHT TRIPLE VALVE. 

Modern conditions have created new braking prob- 
lems. The old and well-known (Type H) quick-action 
freight triple valve was designed to meet the require- 
ments of the time when 50-car trains, 30-ton capacity 
cars, and moderate speeds were maximum conditions. 
But the increased train lengths, speeds, and car capacities 
of the present day, have demanded certain modifications 
to meet these, and anticipated, requirements. 

The Westinghouse Air Brake Company has developed 
and perfected a new Quick-Action Freight Triple Valve, 
designated as Type “K,” which facilitates train move- 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 645 


ments, increases the factor of safety in handling trains, 
and reduces damage to lading and equipment, in so far 
as they are affected by air-brake operation. 

The K triple valve embodies every feature of the old 
type, and in addition three new ones called the Quick- 
Service, Retarded Release and Uniform Recharge. It 
not only works in perfect harmony with the old valves, 
but greatly improves the action of the latter when they 
are mixed in the same train. They have many parts in 
common, are interchangeable, and the old can be con- 
verted into the new without the loss of many parts. 


The Quick-Service Feature, which produces a quick 
serial operation of the brakes in service applications, has 
been obtained by utilizing the well known principle of 
quick-action in emergency applications, by which each 
triple valve augments the brake-pipe reduction by dis- 
charging brake-pipe air into its brake cylinder. The es- 
sential difference is that in emergency, the maximum 
braking power is always obtained with both the old and 
new valves, while with the new valve, the power of its 
quick-service application is always under complete con- 
trol, and is governed by the reduction made at the brake 
valve. The result is that the quick-service feature 
insures the prompt and reliable response of every brake; 
eliminates the undesirable use of emergency applications 
where a flag, an unforeseen danger ahead, or the need of 
making an accurate stop, frequently necessitates such an 
application with the old standard freight-brake equip- 
ment; reduces the possible loss of air due to flowing 
back through the feed grooves from the auxiliary reser- 
voir to the brake pipe, or by the leakage grooves in the 
cylinders; and gives a more uniform application of the 
brakes throughout the train. 


646 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The Retarded-Release Feature, which insures prac- 
tically a simultaneous release of all brakes, has been ef- 
fected by automaticaily restricting the exhaust of air 
from the brake cylinders at the head end of the train, and 
allowing all others to release freely. To obtain this re- 
sult requires merely the usual correct method of operat- 
ing the brake valve, the retarded release being due to the 
quick and considerable rise in brake-pipe pressure which 
the release position of the brake valve can cause for 
about 25 or 30 cars from the locomotive. 


The Uniform Recharge of the auxiliary reservoirs 
throughout the train is obtained by the fact that when 
the triple valve is in retarded-release position, the charg- 
ing ports between brake pipe and auxiliary reservoir are 
automatically restricted. As long as the release of brake- 
cylinder exhaust is retarded, the recharge is restricted, 
and since the one feature depends upon the other, the re- 
stricted recharge operates only on the first twenty-five 
or thirty cars back of the engine, the remaining brakes 
recharging normally, thus insuring practically a simul- 
taneous recharge of all brakes in the train. This fea- 
ture not only avoids the overcharge of the auxiliary 
reservoirs on the front cars and the subsequent undesired 
reapplication of their brakes, but by drawing less air 
from the brake pipe permits the increase in brake-pipe 
pressure to travel more rapidly to the rear for releasing 
and recharging those brakes. 

The new valve is at present manufactured in two sizes, 
the “K-1” for use with 8-inch freight-car brake cylinders, 
corresponding with the H-1 (F-36), and the “K-2” with 
to-inch freight-car brake cylinders, corresponding with 
the H-2 (H-49). The K-1 will bolt to the same reser- 
voir as the F-36, and the K-2 as the H-49. Each valve 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 647 


is marked with its designation on the side of the valve 
body, and the K-2 may be distinguished from the K-1 
by the fact that it has three, as compared with two, bolt 
holes in the reservoir flange. Also, in order to distin- 
guish the type K valves from the old standard type, their 
exterior being similar when they are attached to the 





RIG. 323. "THE “TYPE “K” FREIGHT TRIPLE VALVE 


auxiliary reservoir, a lug is cast on the top of the valve 
body, as shown in Fig. 323. This enables anyone to 


locate them at once. 
Fig. 324 is a vertical cross section of this valve, and 


the names of the various parts are as follows: 


648 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


2, Valve Body; 3, Slide Valve; 4, Piston; 5, Piston- 
Packing Ring; 6, Slide-Valve Spring; 7, Graduating 
Valve; 8, Emergency Piston; 9, Emergency-Valve Seat; 
10, Emergency Valve; 11, Emergency-Valve Rubber 
Seat; 12, Check-Valve Sitios 13, Check-Valve Case; 
14, Check-Valve-Case Gasket; 15, Check Valve; 16, Air 
Strainer; 17, Union Nut; 18, Union Swivel; 19, Cylinder 
Cap; 20, Graduating-Stem Nut; 21, Graduating Stem; 













































Uw 
TO AUXILIARY 30, TRA <i NF [p= ULL 
RESERVOIR Ch igol | az 
S | “ee 
ov SN arn rae th ‘i = 
SN thd Sibel 4 serene es ii 
Smee ROU ae te | 
N soot yl Ss 
\\Gas Re NV 7 Lg 
NERS RRR 
TO BRAKE we sal ies 52 9 
at S 
CYLINDER Se Sy 





FIG. 324. THE K-2 TRIPLE VALVE 


22, Graduating Spring; 23, Cylinder-Cap Gasket; 24, 
Bolt and Nut; 25, Triple-Valve Cap Screw; 26, Drain 
Plug; 27, Union Gasket; 28, Emergency-Valve Nut; 29, 
Retarding-Device Bracket ; 30, Retarding-Device Screw; 
31, Retarding-Device Stem; 32, Retarding-Device 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 649 


Washer; 33, Retarding-Device Spring; 34, Retarding- 
Device-Stem Pin; 35, Graduating-Valve Spring. 

Figure 325 shows the relative position of the ports 
and cavities in the slide va've, graduating valve, and 
slide-valve seat of the K-2 Triple Valve. As it is dif- 
ficult to show all of these in a single section, diagram- 
matic cuts of the valve in each of the principal positions 
have been used, all ports and passages having been so 
arranged as to place them in one plane. In preparing 
these cuts, the actual proportion, and mechanical con- 
struction of the valve has been disregarded for the pur- 
pose of making the connections of ports, and operation, 
more easily understood. 


EXPLANATION OF FIGURES 324 AND 325. 


Referring to Figure 324, the branch from the brake 
pipe connects at union swivel 18. The retarding-device 
bracket 29 projects into the auxiliary reservoir, and by 
its construction free communication exists between the 
auxiliary reservoir and chamber R, in which the slide- 
valve 3 and graduating valve 7 operate. The retarding- 
device stem 31, through its extension into chamber R, 
and the action of its spring 33, forms the stop against 
which the stem of piston 4 strikes when it moves to the 
release position (from right to left in the cut, it being 
shown in full-release position). 

The opening marked “To Brake Cylinder” comes op- 
posite one end of the tube which leads through the 
auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder, when the valve 
is bolted in place on the end of the auxiliary reservoir. 
This opening in the triple valve leads to chamber X 


9D0 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


FACE VIEW 


GRADUATING VALVE . 


er et 


‘FACE VIEW 





TOP VIEW 
SLIDE VALVE. 





SX sssxq 
SLIDE VALVE BUSH. 


FIG. 325. SLIDE VALVE, GRADUATING VALVE, AND SLIDE- 
VALVE SEAT OF K-2 TRIPLE VALVE 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 651 


over the emergency valve 10, and under the emergency 
piston 8. Also, it leads through port r to the seat under 
slide valve 3 (Fig. 325). The emergency piston 8 and 
the parts below it are the same as in the older quick- 
action freight triple valve. Port y (shown by dotted 
lines) connects chamber Y, between check valve 12 and 
emergency valve 10, with port y in the valve seat (Fig. 
325). 

Port ¢ connects the slide-valve seat with the chamber 
above emergency piston 8. Port p is the exhaust port 
to the atmosphere. Port 7 in the slide valve begins at 
the face, as shown by the top view, Fig. 325, and passes 
around other ports in the valve to a smaller opening in 
the top. (Note:—This port j does not exist in the K-1 
Triple Valve, as will be explained later.) Port o is sim- 
ilarly arranged, except that openings in top and bottom 
are alike in size. Port q runs directly through the slide 
valve, but is smaller at the top than at the face of the 
valve, and. the smaller part is out of center with the 
larger part. Ports s and g run through the valve and 
connect with cavities in the face; port z also has a cavity 
at the top. 

The face view of the graduating valve shows that 
it has a small cavity v. This valve is of the slide-valve 
type, and it seats on the top of the slide valve, where it 
controls the upper ends of ports 2, g, o and 7. The 
purpose of the cavity vw is to connect the upper ends of 
ports o and q in a service application, as explained in 
detail later. 

As shown by the face view of the slide valve, n is a 
long cavity having a narrow extension at the right hand 
end. This cavity connects the ports through which the 
air escapes from the brake cylinder in releasing. Port 


652 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


b is cut diagonally from the face till it just cuts into the 
edge, at the top of the slide valve. It admits auxiliary- 
reservoir pressure to port ¢ in an emergency application. 

With this explanation, and by occasional reference 
from the diagrammatic views, to those in Fig. 325, the 
same ports being lettered alike, a clear understanding 
will be obtained of both the operation and actual ar- 
rangement of ports of the triple valves. 


FULL RELEASE AND CHARGING POSITION. 


Fig. 326 is a diagrammatic view of the triple valve in 
this position. Air from the brake pipe flows through pas- 
sage e, cylinder cap f, and ports g to chamber h; thence 
through feed groove 1, now open, to chamber R above 
the slide valve, which is always in free communication 
with the auxiliary reservoir. The feed groove 7 is of the 
same dimension as that of the old standard H-1 (F-36) 
triple valve, which is designed to properly charge the 
auxiliary reservoir of an 8-inch brake cylinder, and pre- 
vent any appreciable amount of air from feeding back 
into the brake pipe from the auxiliary reservoir during 
an application. For this reason, the feed groove of the 
K-2 triple valve is made the same size as the K-1, so 
that it is necessary in the K-2 triple, to increase the 
charging port area, through which the air can feed into 
the auxiliary reservoir, sufficiently to enable it to handle 
the greater volume of the auxiliary reservoir of a 10-inch 
brake cylinder. In order to do this, the small port 7 is 
added to the slide valve of the K-2 triple valve only ; this 
port registers with port y in the slide-valve seat, when 
in the full release position. Air then passes from cham- 
ber Y, through ports y and 7 to chamber R, and the aux- 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 653 


iliary reservoir. Brake-pipe air in a raises check valve 15 
and supplies chamber Y with air as fast as it is required. 
Port j is so proportioned that the rate of charging the 
auxiliary reservoir of a 10-inch brake cylinder is made 
practically the same as that of the 8-inch, which in full 


LE 













CAA SAS 









Z) 


Faas | 
MON 





fl Oy 
NENTS 


Z 


FIG. 326. FULL-RELEASE AND CHARGING POSITION 


release is fed through the feed groove 7 only. In the 
following description, the K-2 triple valve only is re- 
ferred to; the operation of the K-I is exactly the same 
except for the absence of port j. 

Air flows from the brake pipe to the auxiliary reser- 
voir until their pressures become equal, when the latter 
is then fully charged. 


654 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


QUICK-SERVICE POSITION. 


To make a service application of the brakes, air pres- 
sure is gradually reduced in the brake pipe, and thereby 
in chamber . As soon as the remaining pressure in the 















es 
eK AS 
VARA GER 

5 i 


— 








STIL. 


FIG. 327. QUICK SERVICE POSITION 


auxiliary reservoir and chamber R becomes enough 
greater than that in chamber h, to overcome the friction 
of the piston 4 and graduating valve 7, these two move 
to the left until the shoulder on the end of the piston 
stem strikes against the right-hand end of the slide valve, 
when it also is moved to the left until the piston strikes 
the graduating stem 21, which is held in its place by 
the compression of the graduating spring 22. The parts 
of the valve are then in the position shown in Fig. 327. 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 655 


The first movement of the graduating valve closes the 
feed groove i, preventing air from feeding back into the 
brake pipe from the auxiliary reservoir, and also opens 
the upper end of port ¢ in the slide valve, while the 
movement of the latter closes the connection between 
port r and the exhaust port p, and brings port zg into par- 
tial registration with port 7, in the slide valve seat. Aux- 
iliary-reservoir pressure then flows through port ¢ in the 
slide valve, and port r in the seat to the brake cylinder. 


At the same time, the first movement of the graduat- 
_ ing valve connected the two ports o and q in the slide 
valve, by the cavity v in the graduating valve, and the 
movement of the slide valve brought port o to 
register with port y in the slide-valve seat, and port q 
with port ¢. Consequently, the air pressure in chamber 
Y flows through ports y, 0, v, q and ¢, thence around the 
emergency piston 8, which fits loosely in its cylinder, to. 
chamber X and the brake cylinder. When the pressure 
in chamber Y has reduced below the brake-pipe pressure 
remaining in a, the check valve raises, and allows brake- 
pipe air to flow by the check valve and through the ports 
above mentioned to the brake cylinders. The size of 
these ports is so proportioned that the flow of air from 
the brake pipe to the top of emergency piston 8, is not 
sufficient to force the latter downward, and thus cause an 
emergency application, but at the same time takes con- 
siderable air from the brake pipe, thus increasing the 
rapidity with which the brake-pipe reduction travels 
through the train. 

With the ordinary quick action triple valve in a serv- 
ice application, all of the brake-pipe reduction has to 
be made at the brake valve, and the resulting drop in 
pressure passes back through the train at a rate depend- 


656 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


ing on its length, size of brake pipe, number of bends 
and corners, etc., which cause friction and resistance; 
also a much heavier application of head than of rear 
brakes is caused at the beginning of the application, 
thereby running the slack in, which is liable at low | 
speeds to be followed by the slack running out suddenly 

when the rear brakes do apply, causing loss of time and 
difficulty in making quick slow downs and accurate stops, 
and, with very long trains, results in such serious losses 
through leakage grooves, and feed grooves as to lose 
much braking power and even prevent some brakes from 
applying. With this new triple valve, only a small part 
of the reduction is made at the brake valve, while each 
triple acts momentarily as a brake valve to increase the 
reduction under each car, thereby rendering the resist- 
ance and friction in the brake pipe of much less effect, 
and hastening the application throughout the train. This 
is called the “Quick-Service” feature, and by means of 
it the rapidity of a full service application on a 50-car 
train is increased about fifty per cent. The rapid reduc- 
tion of brake-pipe pressure moves the main piston 4 
quickly to the service position, and cuts off any flow back 
from the auxiliary reservoir through the feed groove to 
the brake pipe; it rapidly drives the brake-cylinder piston 
beyond the leakage groove, and prevents loss of air 
through it; and yet permits applying with as moderate 
a brake force as desired. It also greatly reduces the 
brake-pipe reduction necessary at the brake valve for a 
certain brake-cylinder pressure, due to the fact (1) that 
part of the reduction takes place at each triple valve, and 
(2) that the air taken from the brake pipe into the brake 
cylinder gives a little higher pressure than if the aux- 
iliary-reservoir pressure alone were admitted, thus re- 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT bor 


quiring a smaller brake-pipe reduction for the same cylin- 
der pressure. 


FULL-SERVICE POSITION. 


With short trains, the brake-pipe volume, being com- 
paratively small, will reduce more rapidly for a certain 
reduction at the brake valve than with long trains. 













Yi MLLLLLLLLLLA 


ULE 


IWS 








FIG. 328. FULL SERVICE POSITION 


Under such circumstances the added reduction at each 
triple valve by the quick-service feature, might bring 
about so rapid a brake-pipe reduction as to cause quick 
action and an emergency application, when only a light 
application was intended. (The emergency application is 
explained later.) But this is automatically prevented 


658 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


by the triple valve itself. From Fig. 327 it will be noted 
that in the quick-service position, port gz in the slide valve 
and port ry in the seat do not fully register. Neverthe- 
less, the opening is sufficient to allow the air to flow 
from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake-cylinder with 
sufficient rapidity to reduce the pressure in the auxiliary 
reservoir as fast as the pressure is reducing in the brake 
pipe, when the train is of considerable length. But if 
the brake-pipe reduction is more rapid than that of the 
auxiliary, the difference in pressures on the two sides of 
piston 4 soon becomes sufficient to slightly compress the 
graduating spring, and move the slide valve to the posi- 
tion shown in Fig. 328, called “Full Service.’ In this 
position, quick service port y is closed, so that no air 
flows from the brake pipe to the brake cylinder; the 
brake-pipe reduction being sufficiently rapid, there is no 
need of the additional quick-service reduction, so the 
triple valve cuts it out. Also, ports g and r are fully open, 
and allow the auxiliary-reservoir pressure to reduce more 
rapidly, so as to keep pace with the more rapid brake- 
pipe reduction. 


LAP POSITION. 


When the brake-pipe reduction ceases, air continues 
to flow from the auxiliary reservoir through ports ¢ and 
r to the brake cylinder, until the pressure in the chamber 
R becomes enough less than that of the brake pipe to 
cause piston 4, and graduating valve 7 to move to the 
right until the shoulder on the piston stem strikes the left- 
hand end of slide valve 3. As the friction of piston and 
graduating valve is much less than that of the slide valve, 
the difference in pressure which will move the piston and 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT _ 659 


the graduating valve, will not be sufficient to move all 
three ; consequently, the piston stops in the position shown 
in Fig. 329. This movement has caused the graduating 
valve to close port , thus cutting off any further flow of 
air from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder. 
Consequently, no further change in air pressures can oc- 
cur, and this position is called “Lap,” because all ports are 
lapped,—that is, closed. 











Toro ye ol 





AWS 

aay 

ZG, ULZ 4 g 
AG 





yj Ly mY 


FIG. 329. LAP POSITION 


If it is desired to make a heavier application, a further 
reduction of the brake-pipe pressure is made, and the 
operation described above repeated, until the auxiliary 
reservoir and brake cylinder pressures become equal, 


660 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


after which any further brake-pipe reduction is only a 
waste of air. About twenty pounds brake-pipe reduction 
will give this equalization. 


RETARDED RELEASE AND CHARGING POSITION, 


The K triple valve has two release positions, full-re- 
lease and retarded-release. Which one its parts will move 
to when the train brakes are released, depends upon how 
the brake-pipe pressure is increased; if slowly, it will be 
full release, and if quickly and considerably, it will be re- 
tarded-release. It is well known that in a freight train, 
when the engineer releases the brakes, that the rapidity 
with which the brake-pipe pressure increases on any car 
depends on the position of the car in the train. Those cars 
towards the front, receiving the air first will have their 
brake-pipe pressure raised more rapidly than those in the 
rear. With the old standard apparatus, this is due to two 
things: (1) the friction in the brake pipe; (2) the fact 
that the auxiliary reservoirs in the front at once begin to 
recharge, thus tending to reduce the pressure head by ab- 
sorbing a quantity of air, and holding back the flow from 
front to rear of the train. The retarded-release feature 
of this new triple valve overcomes the second point men- 
tioned, taking advantage of the first while doing so. The 
friction of the brake pipe causes the pressure in chamber 
h to build up more rapidly on triple valves towards the 
front than those in the rear. As soon as its pressure is 
enough greater than the auxiliary-reservoir pressure, re- 
maining in chamber R after the application above de- 
scribed, to overcome the friction of piston, graduating 
valve, and slide valve, all three are moved toward the right 
until the piston stem strikes the retarding-device stem, 31. 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 661 


The latter is held in position by the retarding-device 
epring, 33. If the rate of increase of the brake-pipe 
pressure is small, as, for example, when the car is near 
the rear of the train, the triple valve parts will remain in 
this position, as shown in Fig. 326, the brakes will release 
and the auxiliary reservoirs recharge as described under 






BEL 


4 ae ANTAL 
7] 









WW 





FIG. 330. RETARDED-RELEASE POSITION 


“FULL RELEASE AND CHARGING.” If, however, the triple 
_ valve is near the head of the train, and the brake-pipe 
pressure builds up more rapidly than the auxiliary reser- 
voir can recharge, the excessive pressure in chamber h 
will cause the piston to compress retarding-device spring, 
33; and move the triple-valve parts to the position shown 
in Fig. 330. 


662 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Exhaust cavity m in the slide valve now connects port 7 
leading to the brake cylinder, with port p to the atmos- 
phere, and the brake will release; but as the small ex- 
tension of cavity 1 (see Fig. 325) is over port p, discharge 
of air from the brake cylinder to the atmosphere is quite 
slow. In this way the brakes on the front end of the train 
require a longer time to release than those on the rear. 
This feature is called the “Retarded Release,” and al- 
though the triple valves near the locomotive commence 
to release before those in the rear, as in the case with the 
H-triple valve, yet the exhaust of brake-cylinder pres- 
sure in retarded-release position is sufficiently slow to 
allow the rear brakes to release first. This permits of 
releasing the brakes on very long trains at low speeds 
without danger of a severe shock or break in two. 


At the same time, the back of the piston is in contact 
with the end of the slide-valve bush and, as these two 
surfaces are ground to an accurate fit, their contact ef- 
fectually cuts off communication between chambers h and 
R through feed groove 1, preventing air from feeding 
through from the brake pipe to the auxiliary reservoir by 
this path. Also, port 7 in the slide valve registers with 
port y in the slide valve seat, and pressure in chamber Y 
can flow through ports y and /] to the chamber R and the 
auxiliary reservoir. Chamber Y is supplied with air 
under these circumstances by the check valve 15 raising 
and allowing brake-pipe air to flow past it. The area of 
port / is about half that of feed groove 7, so that the rate 
that the auxiliary reservoir will recharge is much less 
than when the triple valve is in the full-release position. 

As the auxiliary-reservoir pressure rises, and the pres- 
sures on the two sides of piston 4 become nearly equa!, 
retarding-device spring 31 forces the piston, slide valve, 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 663 


graduating valve, and retarding device stem back to the 
full release position shown in Fig. 326, when the remain- 
der of the release and recharging will take place as de- 
scribed above under “Full Release and Charging.” 

These features of the new valve are always available, 
even when mixed in trains with the old standard, the 
beneficial results being in proportion to the number of 
new valves present. 


EMERGENCY POSITION. 


Emergency Position is the same with the K triple valve 
as with the H type. Quick action is caused by a sudden 
and considerable reduction in brake-pipe pressure, no mat- 
ter how caused. This fall in brake-pipe pressure causes 
the difference in pressures on the two sides of piston 4 
to increase very rapidly, so that the friction of the piston, 
slide valve and graduating valve is quickly and greatly 
overcome, and they move to the left with such force that 
when the piston strikes the graduating stem, it compresses 
graduating spring 22, forcing back the stem and spring, 
until the piston seats firmly against the gasket 23, as 
shown in Fig. 331. The movement of the slide valve 
opens port ¢ in the slide-valve seat, and allows auxiliary 
reservoir pressure to flow to the top of emergency piston 
8, forcing the latter downward and opening emergency 
valve 10. The pressure in chamber Y, being instantly 
relieved, allows brake-pipe air to raise the check valve 15 
and flow rapidly through chambers Y and X to the brake 
cylinder, until brake-cylinder, and brake-pipe pressures 
equalize, when both check valve and emergency valve are 
forced to their seats by the spring in the former, prevent- 
ing the air in the cylinders from escaping back into the 


664 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


brake pipe again. At the same time port s in the slide 
valve registers with port r in the slide-valve seat, and al- 
lows auxiliary-reservoir pressure to flow to the brake 
cylinder. But the size of ports s and r is such that very 
little air gets through them before the brake pipe has 
stopped venting into the brake cylinder. This sudden 
discharge of brake-pipe air into the brake cylinder has 
the same effect on the next triple valve as would be caused 





CEA 





SSRRS 





FIG. 331. EMERGENCY POSITION 


by a similar discharge of brake-pipe air to the atmosphere. 
In this way each triple valve applies the next, thus giving 
the quick and full application of all brakes, made heavier 
than full service application through the greater amount 
of brake-pipe air admitted to the brake cylinders, 


ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 665 


The rapidity with which the brakes apply throughout 
the train is so much increased, that in a 50-car train it 
requires less than three seconds; the brake-cylinder pres- 
sure is also increased approximately twenty per cent. 

The release after an emergency is effected in exactly 
the same manner as after a service application, but re- 
quires a longer time, owing to the higher brake-cylinder 
pressures and lower brake-pipe pressures. 

To change a standard type H triple valve to the type 
K, it is necessary to add the retarded-release feature, and 
to make the necessary changes in the controlling valves, 
body, and check-valve case. 


MANIPULATION, 


No special instructions are required by the engineers to 
handle trains partially, or wholly fitted with the K triple 
valve. The automatic brake valve should be handled as 
good practice requires with the H triple valve. Some of 
the most important details are as follows: 

Make the terminal brake tests, and check the results 
indicated by noting how well the brakes hold in the first 
running application, and be governed accordingly in sub- 
sequent applications. 

Before attempting to release have an ample excess 
pressure for the length of train, and in releasing leave the 
handle of the automatic brake valve in release position 
until the rear brakes have had time to release. 

As return to running position will cause triple valves 
in retarded-release position to change to full-release posi- 
tion, the brake-valve handle should not be moved from 
release too soon. However, with short trains the usual 
early return to running position will prevent unnecessary 
retardation of release. 


666 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


QUESTIONS 


1019. What are the principal advantages possessed by 
the Type “K Triple Valve over the older Types”? 

1020. Describe the Quick service feature. 

1021. How is this feature produced? 

1022. What conditions are secured by the Retarded 
release feature? 

1023. How are the auxiliary reservoirs uniformly re- 
charged throughout the train? 

1024. How many sizes of the K valve are at present 
made? 

1025. How may the K-2 valve be distinguished from 
the K-1? 

1026. Mention the principal disadvantages attending 
a service application with the ordinary quick action triple 
valve. 

1027. Are these conditions present with the K Triple 
Valve? 

1028. Describe briefly full service position. 

1029. What conditions are present with lap position? 

1030. How are the two release positions of the K 
Triple Valve designated? 

1031. What conditions control the position of full re- 
lease? 

1032. How is retarded release accomplished? 

1033. Is there any difference in emergency position, 
whether with the K Triple Valve, or with the H Type? 

1034. What length of time is required for an applica- 
tion throughout a train of 50 cars with the K Triple 
Valve? 


QUESTIONS 667 


1035. What changes are necessary to convert a type 
H Triple Valve to Type K? 

1036. What are three important rules to be observed 
by engineers in the handling of trains partially, or wholly 
equipped with the K Triple Valve? 





ev eee RIPE bev Ve 


This triple valve has the usual brake-pipe auxiliary 
reservoir, and brake-cylinder connections, also an addi- 
tional connection for a supplementary reservoir. Fig. 
348 shows a view of the type L triple valve, with the 
safety valve in place. In order that trains may be con- 
trolled easily and smoothly when running at either high 
or low speeds, and that stops may be made quickly and 
with the least liability of wheel sliding, the brake ap- 
paratus must provide the following essential features 
of operation: 

A small brake-pipe reduction must give a moderate 
brake-cylinder pressure and a moderate but uniform re- 
tardation on the train as a whole. 

It must be possible to make a heavy service reduction 
quickly, but without liability of quick action. 

It must be possible to graduate the release as well 
as the application of the brakes. 

To insure the ability to obtain brake nate: in 
rapid succession, and to full power, a quick recharging 
of the auxiliary reservoirs is necessary. This feature also 
enables the engineer to handle long trains in heavy grade 
work with a much greater factor of safety than hereto- 
fore, and eliminates the need for retaining valves. 
‘For high-speed trains, a high brake-cylinder pressure 
available for emergency applications is imperative, in 
order to provide a maximum braking power, when the 
shortest possible stop is required to save life or to avoid 


sudden danger. 
669 


670 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


The Westinghouse Air Brake Co. claim that they have 
met the above requirements by the development of the 
type L triple valve. This triple valve is of the quick- 
action, automatic, “pipeless’’ type, and is intended for 
use only in high-speed passenger service. The L valve 





FIG. 348. THE TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 


forms a part of the LN Passenger Car Equipment, which 
is designed throughout to meet the service conditions out- 
lined above. Being of the quick action type it possesses 
the following important features: 


TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 671 


Ist. Quick RECHARGE (of auxiliary reservoirs), by 
which a rapid recharging of the brake system is secured, 
thus making it possible to obtain full braking power im- 
mediately after a release has been made and permitting as 
many applications and releases in quick succession as may 
be desired, without materially depleting the system. 


3) 26 25 27 28 29 30 
















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FIG. 349. THE TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 


and. Quick SERVICE, by which a very quick serial 
service action of the brakes throughout the train is se- 
cured, similar to that in emergency applications, but less 
in degree. This makes certain the prompt and uniform 
application of all the brakes in the train, correspondingly 
increasing the rapidity and effectiveness of any given 
brake-pipe reduction, and thereby practically eliminating 
the need for the harsher emergency application, except 
in cases of actual danger. 

3rd. GRADUATED RELEASE, which permits of partially 
or entirely releasing the brakes on the entire train at will. 

4th. HicH EMERGENCY CYLINDER PRESSURE, which 


672 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


greatly increases the available braking power in emer- 
gency applications over the maximum obtainable with 
a full service reduction. With this, as with all quick-ac- 
tion triple valves, a portion of the air contained in the 
brake pipe is vented to the brake cylinder in emergency 
applications, thus providing for the quick serial operation 
of the brakes in the usual way. This, in itself increases 
the brake cylinder pressure thus obtained, considerably 
above the maximum pressure, possible in ordinary service 
applications. 

The high emergency pressure feature referred to still 
further increases this emergency pressure, and the high 
cylinder pressure thus obtained, is retained without re- 
duction, until released. 

This is accomplished by the use of a supplementary 
reservoir in addition to the ordinary auxiliary reservoir. 


The supplementary reservoir is approximately double the 
size of the auxiliary reservoirs. Its function is to assist 


in obtaining the graduated release of the brakes, and the 
high emergency cylinder pressure, and the way in which 
this is accomplished will be explained later on. This 
feature makes it possible to use the equipment as a high 
speed brake, when carrying 90 lbs. brake pipe pressure, 
and obtain better results than when using 110 lbs. pres- 
sure with the old standard equipment in steam road 
service. Fig. 349 shows a vertical cross section of the 
valve, and the names of its various parts are as follows: 

2, Valve Body; 3, Slide Valve; 4, Piston; 5, Piston 
Ring; 6, Slide Valve Spring; 7, Graduating Valve; 8, 
Emergency-Valve Piston; 9, Emergency-Valve Seat; Io, 
Emergency-Valve; 11, Rubber Seat for Emergency- 
Valve; 12, Check-Valve Spring; 13, Check-Valve Case; 
14, Check-Valve Case Gasket; 15, Check Valve; 16, 


TYPE L. TRIPLE VALVE 673 


Emergency Valve Nut; 17, Graduating-Valve Spring; 18, 
Cylinder Cap; 19, Graduating-Spring Nut; 20, Graduat- 
ing Sleeve; 21, Graduating Spring ; 22, Cylinder Cap Gas- 


6 
a 


FACE VIEW 


GRADUATING VALVE. 
SRE ES 


PISTON ENO 





pees) 1) (8) 


Q So 


PISTON END. 





PLAN VIEW 


SLIDE VALVE. 


@ Sf 


PISTON END. 





3 @ 


SLIDE VALVE SEAT. 


FIG. 350. GRADUATING VALVE, SLIDE VALVE, AND SLIDE-VALVE 
SEAT. TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 


ket ; 23, Bolt and Nut for Cylinder Cap; 24, Bolt and Nut 
for Check-Valve Case; 25, By-Pass Piston; 26, By-Pass 
Piston Ring; 27, By-Pass-Valve; 28, By-Pass-Valve 


674 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


Seat: 29, By-Pass-Valve Spring; 30, By-Pass Valve 
Cap; 31, By-Pass-Piston Cap; 32, Strainer; 33, E-7 
Safety Valve. 

Fig. 350 illustrates the actual arrangement of ports, 
and cavities, in the graduating valve, slide valve, and 
slide valve seat, of the type L triple valve. Owing to 
the impossibility of showing all of the ports and con- 





















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FIG. 34. FULL RELEASE AND CHARGING POSITION 


necting passageways in any single illustration, figures 
352, 353; $354, 355 ands s5U,eareeprcscn cd mmancmcaen 
shows in a diagrammatic way, the relations of the various 
parts to each other, for the different positions of tho 
triple-valve piston. 

The actual proportions and mechanical construction of 
the parts have been disregarded, in order to make the 
connections, and operation more intelligible to the student. 
The letters designating the ports and passages appear- 


TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 675 


ing on Figures 349 to 356 inclusive, correspond through- 
out, but the reference numbers on Fig. 349 do not exactly 
correspond with those on the diagrammatic views. The 
various connections shown in Fig. 349, and the ports in 
Fig. 350 will, however, be made clear, by comparison 
with the diagrammatic views shown in Figures 351 to 
356. Referring to Fig. 350, it will be noticed that the 


Lidlpprg t 
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lide, 









\ 
N 














SSS 






OX 
DP 


LLL 


NY 
YES 


FIG. 352 QUICK-SERVICE POSITION 


ports in the plan view of the slide valve seat are as fol- 
lows: r leads to the brake cylinder; t, to the top of the 
emergency piston; p, to exhaust; x, to the supplementary 
reservoir; y, to the check valve case and chamber Y ; b, to 
the safety valve, and c, to the space behind the by-pass 
piston. 

The registration of the parts is most readily followed, 
and understood, by reference to, and comparison with 


676 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


the diagrammatic drawings, Figures 351 to 356, in which 
the connections to the triple valve are as follows: 

a—Brake Pipe. 

x—Supplementary Reservoir. 

C—Brake Cylinder. 

p—Exhaust. 

b—Safety Valve. 

R—Auxiliary Reservoir. 


OPERATION, OF (THES LY PEE WURI Dig he Venda vis. 
CHARGING. 


Referring to Figures 349 and 351, air from the brake 
pipe enters the triple valve through the passages a, e, 
g, and h, to the face of the triple valve piston (which is 
then forced to release position as shown), thence through 
the feed groove 7 to chamber R and auxiliary reservoir. 
Brake-pipe air in passage a also raises the check valve 15, 
and entering chamber Y flows thence through the ports 
y and 7 into chamber R and the auxiliary reservoir. This 
check valve then prevents any back flow of air from the 
auxiliary reservoir to the brake pipe. At the same time, 
port k registers with port + and the air in chamber R 
also flows through these ports into the supplementary 
reservoir. Both the auxiliary and supplementary reser- 
voirs are thus charged at the same time and to the same 
pressure from the brake pipe through the two different 
channels already mentioned. When in this position, air 
from the brake cylinder, entering the triple valve at C, 
flows through passage r, port n, large cavity W (Fig. 
350), in graduating valve, and ports m, and #, to the 
atmosphere, thus releasing the brakes, 


TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 677 


SERVICE APPLICATION. 


The ports of the triple valve being in release, and 
charging as shown in Fig. 351, a service reduction in 
brake-pipe pressure, reduces the pressure in chamber h, 
and on the face of the triple valve piston, below that in 
the auxiliary reservoir on the opposite side of the piston. 

The higher auxiliary reservoir pressure therefore forc- 
es the piston in the direction of the lower brake-pipe 
pressure, carrying with it the attached graduating valve. 
The first movement of the piston closes the ports 7, m and 
k, thus shutting off communication between the brake 
pipe, and the auxiliary and supplementary reservoirs, and 
closing the exhaust passage from the brake cylinder to 
the atmosphere. The same movement opens port ¢ and 
connects ports g and o, in the main slide valve through 
the small cavity v in Fig. 350 in the graduating valve. The 
spider or lugs on the end of the piston stem, then engage 
the end of the main slide valve, which is carried along 
with the piston, and graduating valve, as the reduction 
continues. This brings the parts into quick service posi- 
tion shown in Fig. 352. 

Service port z in the slide valve, registers with brake 
cylinder port 7, in the seat, thus allowing the air in the 
auxiliary reservoir to flow to the brake cylinder, and ap- 
ply the brakes. At the same time the quick service ports, 
o and q, and the small cavity v, in the graduating valve, 
connect passage y, leading from chamber Y in the check 
valve case with passage r leading to the brake cylinder. 
This allows air from the brake pipe to lift the check 
valve, and flow through the above mentioned ports to 
the brake cylinder. This constitutes the quick service 
action of the triple valve, in that it causes a slight, but 


678 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


definite reduction in brake pipe pressure locally, at each 
valve. The effect of a reduction in brake-pipe pressure, 
made at the brake valve, is thus quickly and uniformly 
transmitted from car to car throughout the train. The 
amount of air vented from the brake pipe to the quick 
service ports is not great for two reasons; first, because 
the ports and the passage ways are small; second, be- 
cause in the movement of the slide valve 3 to full 


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FIG. 353. FULL-SERVICE POSITION 


service position, the quick service port y is restricted as 
it approaches this position and completely closed just 
before service port ¢ is fully open, as shown in Fig. 353. 

The amount of opening given the service port in any 
case, depends upon the rate of reduction in brake pipe 
pressure as compared with that of the auxiliary reservoir. 

If the former is at first rapid, as compared with the 


TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 679 


latter, which would be the case with short trains, the 
higher auxiliary pressure moves the piston at once to 
Full-Service Position, Fig. 353, thus automatically cut- 
ting out the quick-service feature where it is not need- 
ed. When in Full-Service Position, Fig. 353, the service 
port g is fully open, and the quick-service port o is closed. 
This stops the flow of air from the brake pipe to the 
cylinder and the quick-service action ceases. As shown in 
the cut, the graduating spring is compressed slightly 
when the piston is in full service position. In any case 
where the brake pipe reduction is so rapid, that the quick 
service feature is of no advantage, the difference of pres- 
sure on the two sides of the triple valve piston becomes 
at the same time sufficient to compress the graduating 
spring, and automatically close the quick service port as 
explained above. But if the brake pipe reduction is less 
rapid, or slow, asin the case of long trains, or moderate 
service reductions, a partial opening enly of the service 
port is sufficient to preserve a balance between the pres- 
sure on the two sides of the triple valve piston. The 
service port connecting the auxiliary reservoir to the brake 
cylinder, is much larger than the quick-service port con- 
necting the brake pipe to the brake cylinder. This serves 
to effectually prevent an emergency application, when 
only a service application is desired. It also guards 
against the brake-pipe reduction being continued, due to 
the quick-service port remaining open, after the reduc- 
tion has been stopped at the brake valve. 

During the time the slide valve 3 remains in Quick 
or Full-Service Positions, as shown in Figs. 352 and 
353, the cavity g connects the brake-cylinder port r with 
port b, leading to the safety valve. This safety valve, 
known as the E-7 (see Figures 348 and 349), is ordina- 


680 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


rily set for 62 Ibs. In an emergency application, however, 
the safety valve is entirely cut off from the cylinder, as 
explained under the heading “Emergency.” — 


LAP, 


After a sufficient brake-pipe reduction has been made, 
the brake-valve handle is lapped, and further escape of 
air from the brake pipe is prevented. When the flow 


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FIG. 354. SERVICE-LAP POSITION 


of air from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder 
has reduced the pressure on the reservoir side of the 
triple-valve piston slightly below that remaining on the 
brake-pipe side, the pressure in the brake pipe, assisted by 
the graduating spring, will move the piston, and graduat- 
ing valve to service-lap position, shown in Fig. 354. In 
this position all of the ports are blanked by the grad- 


TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 681 


uating valve, and the flow of air to the brake cylinder 
is stopped. Further movement is prevented by the shoul- 
der of the piston stem striking the end of the slide valve 
3, as shown in the cut. The slight difference of pressure 
which was sufficient to move the piston and small grad- 
uating valve is unable to overcome the added resistance of 
the slide valve, and the parts remain in the position shown. 


It should be noted that the slide valve 3 remains in 
Service Position, a movement of the piston and gradu- 
ating valve being all that is required to lap the valve. 
Consequently, when in this position, only a slight re- 
cuction in brake-pipe pressure is required to again bring 
the piston and graduating valve into Service Position. 
It is evident that the exact position of the main slide 
valve in Lap Position depends upon whether its previous 
position was that of quick service (Fig. 352), or full 
service (Fig. 353). If the former, the lap position as- 
sumed would be that of quick-service lap (Fig. 354). 
If, however, the valve had moved to full service, the po- 
sition would be that of full-service lap. The main piston 
being in service-lap position (Fig. 354), the pressure on — 
both sides of it must be equal. If the brake-pipe pres- 
sure is increased in order to ~elease the brakes, the higher 
pressure on that side of the piston causes it to move the 
graduating and slide valves to the extreme right to re- 
lease, and recharging position, previously described (see 
Fig. 351). The air, which was prevented from leaving 
the supplementary reservoir by the former movement of 
the slide valve to service position, and which consequently 
remained at its initial pressure, while the auxiliary reser- 
voir pressure was being reduced, now flows into the aux- 
iliary reservoir and helps to recharge it. 

During this operation, as well as while graduating 


682 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


the release of the brakes, described under the next 
heading, the pressures on the brake pipe and auxiliary 
reservoir sides of the triple-valve piston are always in 
balance. This is important, since it insures an imme- 
diate response of the brakes to any reduction, or in- 
crease in brake-pipe pressure, irrespective of what oper- 
ation may have occurred just preceding. 

If the brake-valve handle is moved to Running Posi- 
tion and left there, the brake-pipe pressure is fully re- 
stored and the piston remains in Release Position; the 
brakes being thereby fully released and the auxiliary and 
supplementary reservoirs fully recharged. 


GRADUATED RELEASE. 


Suppose, however, that after the brakes have been 
applied, only sufficient air is permitted to flow into the 
brake pipe to move piston 4, with the slide, and grad- 
uating valves, to release position (Fig. 351), and the 
brake-valve handle is returned to lap. Then the flow 
of air from the supplementary reservoir, through ports 
x and k, to the auxiliary reservoir, continuing after the 
rise in brake-pipe pressure has ceased, the pressure on 
the auxiliary reservoir side of the triple-valve piston will 
be raised slightly higher than that on the brake-pipe 
side, and cause the piston, and its attached regulating 
valve, to move to the left, to graduated release position 
shown in Fig. 355. In this position the brake is only par- 
tially released, and a portion of the air pressure originally 
in the brake cylinder still remains there. In this way, 
the brake cylinder pressure may be released in a series of 
steps, or graduations, and the operation is known as grad- 


TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 683 


uated release, and may be repeated as desired, until the 
brake-pipe pressure has been fully restored, and the ex- 
haust of air from the brake cylinder completed. The 
amount of reduction in the brake cylinder pressure for 
any given graduation depends upon the amount of air 
pressure which has been restored in the brake pipe. The 
recharge of the brakes is similarly proportioned. 


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FIG. 355. GRADUATED-RELEASE-LAP POSITION 


EMERGENCY. 


When the brake-pipe pressure is reduced suddenly, or 
its reduction continues to be more rapid than that in 
auxiliary-reservoir pressure, the piston is forced to the 
extreme left and compresses the graduating spring. The 
parts are then in Emergency Position, as shown in Fig. 


684 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


356. In this position air from the auxiliary reservoir en- 
ters the brake cylinder passage r through the port s in 
the main slide valve, instead of port z as in service appli- 
cation. Port ¢ in the seat is also uncovered by the end of 
the main slide valve, thus admitting air from the auxil- 


iary reservoir, through port ¢ to the top of the emergency 
piston. | 











MUU SS S 
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FIG. 356. EMERGENCY POSITION 


The air pressure thus admitted to the top of this piston, 
pushes it down and forces the rubber seated emergency 
valve from its seat. This allows the brake pipe air in pas- 
sage a to lift the emergency check valve, and flow through 
chambers y and + to the brake cylinder C, in the ordinary 
way. At the same time port d, in the main slide valve, 
registers with port c in the seat. This allows air from 
behind the by-pass piston to flow through ports c, d and 
n to r, and the brake cylinder. .As there is no pressure 


TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE © G54 


in the brake cylinder at this instant, the by-pass piston, 
with its attached by-pass valve is forced to the left by the 
auxiliary reservoir pressure acting against its opposite 
face. The air contained in the supplementary reservoir 
then flows past this valve into the passage way leading to 
the auxiliary reservoir. It thereby adds to the latter, 
the volume of the supplementary reservoir. 

This gives in effect an auxiliary reservoir pressure vol- 
ume approximately three times the size of the one that 
supplies air to the brake cylinder in a service application. 
Air from the supplementary reservoir continues to flow 
to the auxiliary reservoir until the pressures in the latter, 
and in the brake cylinder have risen nearly to that re- 
maining in the supplementary reservoir. Communication 
between the two reservoirs is then closed by the by-pass 
_valve returning to its seat. 

This action of the triple valve in the emergency appli- 
cations permits the pressure in the brake cylinder to rise 
to within a few pounds of maximum brake-pipe pressure, 
a much higher pressure being secured in emergency 
applications than is possible with the standard quick- 
action triple valve. 

Further more it will be noted by reference to Fig. 
356 that cavity q has traveled past the brake cylinder 
port 7, so that the latter is no longer connected to the 
safety valve b. Hence, there is no escape of air from 
the brake cylinder after an emergency application of 
the! brakes. Not only,, therefore, is ithe’ emergency 
pressure considerably higher than that formerly secured 
by the use of the old standard High-Speed Brake, but it 
is held without diminution until the brakes are released. 


686 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE, 


The triple valve is usually bolted to the pressure 
head of the brake cylinder, to which all the pipe con- 
nections are permanently made. In removing the valve, 
no pipes need to be disconnected, the loosening of the 
three bolts which hold it in place being all that is re- 
quired. Hence, the name “Pipeless,’ as applied to this 
valve. Care should be taken in locating the valve to 
have it free from obstructions which would render in- 
spection or removal difficult. It should be placed as 
far as possible above the general level of the piping so 
that no pockets are formed in the latter. If this point 
does not receive proper attention, trouble may be ex- 
perienced in cold weather from the freezing of water 
in the pipes or valve itself. Under ordinary service 
conditions, the triple valve should be thoroughly cleaned 
and lubricated once in three months. The proper interval 
is best determined for each particular case by a careful 
inspection and trial. Where conditions are severe and 
the triple valve exposed to extremes of weather, dirt and 
so on, more frequent inspections will no doubt be found 
necessary. Where the valve is protected, and not sub- 
jected to hard usage the interval may be lengthened. 
The use of heavy grease or other lubricants which will 
“gum” and cause the valve to work stiff, or clog the 
ports, should be avoided. Too light a lubricant or one 
that does not possess sufficient “body,” is not satisfactory, 
as it will not thoroughly lubricate the parts or last as 
long as necessary. Special lubricants made for this pur- 
pose will give the best results. 

Before installing the triple valve all of the piping 
should be thoroughly hammered and blown out, in order 


TYPE L.TRIPLE VALVE 687 


to loosen and remove all scale and foreign matter. This 
is especially important in new installations. After the 
piping is completed all of the joints should be thoroughly 
tested with soap suds, under pressure, and made air 
tight. Particular attention should be given to the safety 
valve and its strainers, in order that no dirt or scale can 
reach the safety valve seat and prevent it from properly 
closing. The by-pass piston should also receive atten- 
tion to insure that it is working freely in its bushing. 
Never remove the movable parts of the triple valve 
while it is on the car. If the valve is not working 
properly, or needs cleaning and oiling, take it down 
and replace it by a valve in good condition. All cleaning 
and oiling should be done at a bench, by a competent 
man; where the liability of damage to the internal parts 
of the valve is least. Any attempt to take the triple 
valve apart while still on the car is almost sure to result 
in a large percentage of valves being injured by care- 
less handling, or dirt getting inside the pipes, or valve. 
If repairs are necessary the valves should be sent to the 
shops, where the facilities for doing the work are best. 


The complete LN equipment includes a type L valve 
triple valve, with safety valve, a supplementary reservoir 
and a cut-out cock. At times, however, cars equipped 
with this schedule must be operated in trains with cars 
having the old standard equipment (P triple valves), 
as for instance during the transmission period when a 
change is being made from the old standard to the LN 
schedule. 

During this time the cut-out cock between the triple 
valve and supplementary reservoir should be closed. 
The new valves will then work in perfect harmony with 
the old. In fact, if old and new equipments are to be 


- 688 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


in service together for any considerable length of time, 
the cut-out cock and supplementary reservoir may be 
omitted entirely, as well as the safety valve, furnished 
with the triple valve. If the equipment is used with 70 
Ibs. brake-pipe pressure, no other change is necessary, and 
only the addition of the ordinary High-Speed Reducing 
Valve is required for High-Speed Service (110 lbs. brake- 
pipe pressure). In such cases where the conditions of . 
service demand, there would, of course, be the same 
necessity for a Pressure-Retaining Valve, as with the 
Type, BP. Triplezy alve: 


QUESTIONS 


1069. What are the requirements of a brake appa- 
ratus? 

1070. Wherein does the type L valve differ from the 
older equipments ? 

1071. What important feature does the type L valve 
possess? 

1072. In what way is the high emergency pressure 
feature secured? 

1073. What is the function of the supplementary 
reservoir ? 

1074. Describe in brief, the process of charging and 
release? 

1075. How is service application accomplished? 

1076. How is quick service brought about? 

1077. Upon what does the amount of opening given 
the service port depend? 

1078. If the reduction is so rapid that the quick 
service feature is no advantage, how does the graduat- 


ing spring act? 


QUESTIONS 689 


1079. What is the result when the brake-pipe reduc- 
tion is moderate or slow? 

1080. Is there any liability of an emergency applica- 
tion occurring when only a service application is desired? 

1081. How is this regulated by the L valve? 

1082. How is the position of lap accomplished ? 

1083. What is the function of the graduating valve in 
lap position? | 

1084. Upon what does the position of the main slide 
valve depend in lap position? 

1085. How is the position of graduated release reg- 
ulated by the L valve? 

1086. What are the advantages of graduated release? 

1087. In what way is emergency position brought 
about ? 

1088. How is the volume of air available for use in 
the brake cylinder increased in case of emergency? 

1089. Is it possible to secure a higher pressure in 
emergency application with this valve than it is with 
the standard quick action valve? 

togo. Is there any escape of air from the brake cylin- 
der after an emergency application with the L valve? 

1ogt. Why is the L valve called a “Pipeless” valve? 
Describe briefly the proper location of the valve when 
installed. 

1092. How often should it be cleaned and inspected? 

1093. What should be the nature of the lubricant 
used on it? 

1094. What should be done with the piping before 
installing the valve? 

1095. Mention the parts that should receive particular 
attention. 


690 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 


1096. If repairs are necessary, what should be done 
with the valve? 

1097. What does the complete LN equipment in- 
clude? 

1098. Can it be operated in conjunction with the old 
standard equipment? , 

1099. What changes are necessary in order to accom- 
plish this? 
- 1100. In case High-Speed Service (110 lbs. brake- 
pipe pressure) is required, what additions are necessary: 


INDEX. 


A 
Air brake, advantages of in electric railroading..... 1 
PAIL CLS Delon MAOCOL stot ele sie valh > wrtvetatel eres eat ee a ae 040 
Average speed of interurban electric cars.......... 1 
Bi 
Brakes—arrangement of brake rigging......... 542-543 
WOTIMeMStOUSs Ole aris ene \se seen ee ee tert tat 044 
Mechanism of, on double truck cars............ 543 
Principles governing action of............ 541-545 
Various methods of operating............. 541-542 
ie rakinoeUntae lor MOLOL CALS secre se sles ce ce 239-237 
C 
Catechism on operation of electric locomotives. .355-385 
ARO REGITGH IL pDICOKErS 4. 1h tee rel elie, 373-374 
AO MELTOMCV Ue ye d raed ceca ote ton ata 374-375 
PRT PCRGRGEAI UTS tern ty hae eo Mates ee Pa ng e | 359 
SIO WEES UM x ie tee Sheet cs azote create a eee Whur, 382-383 
TS TAOS MM eee, Ae clay ctatefecat eth ghey oben Mate 379-380 
(UH aToe BLOM AT LO 2.) (Cram. otter ers a lgnee: 363-364 
Chaneesrronn Oto VAC. ae aan ien 364-365 
PAU @EMOVCL SWILCHOS: 15 «id ccetetie ce ree etter 378-379 
GOTICEOL GIS GR triers ole i's ois «tale esate eA Thy sagt as 379 
Critter OULINOLOLS T< ca) fo. lctke ve eee ens 380-381 
DG Dlee Ne sein Oty tac ee . eeeearren tae ce se, 367 
691 


692 


INDEX 


Catechism on operation of electric locomotives—Cont. 


Failure: of ainisupply se. eae ee 381-382 
Fuses 255 Wiis ee ites tee Pte ne eee ae 383-385 
Operation on Ay. Or third rally... 366-367 
Operation on D. C. overhead rail.......... 365-366 
Preparation VLOPerun i. eo s,c0 ap eee ee 308-359 
Raisin? AL? Oe GRgley-s cle nce ea earn te ee eee 368 
Raising’? Di Co Wolley.2.- ols... eee eee 369 
Sai Ors rca oer meee. ccars oar: yA vires ls hie, 385 
Standing ansAe; Or zone vn oo se eee 306-357 
Standinovin J) .O2 Zones. 7. ee ee ee 357 
Starting tains t2 02 wits oe wy Cet 372-373 
Swaitchine Positions seas. ees es es 360-363 
Temperature sof «motorses/ fren oes ey keer eee 382 
Testitig scontrols cc -e cage oy bo che eee 369-371 
Third srail) shoes 3 setae. ie eee ee 377-378 
Transformers 14". oe wo otete eee Utes 2 eae eae 373 
Train stailures, fire: seo ee rae Desserts 311-372 
Unit swith <croupse ssa. eee eee 376-377 
When leaving artermingl.c.: +c ee ee 360 
Christensen Air Brake— 
Automatic ‘ZOvVernor. hse eneveues ee eee 173-176 
Brake ‘cylinders’ sc ae vhs ee 180 
Classification of motor compressors........ 169-170 
Diagram of piping 27s oeele diets eee Ti2 
Engineers brake valvews. os eesees eee 177-180 
Engineer’s brake valve, rotary type........ Wi felis 
Engineer’s brake valve, slide valve type... .179-180 
J semerrency: valvoAcen «eee meee ees 187-195 
J. emergency valve, application of........ 190-191 
J. emergency valve, construction of....... 189-190 
J. emergency valye, function 01.2. 2..26- oie. 188 
J. emergency valve, operation of....,....:192-193 


INDEX 693 


Christensen Air Brake—Continued. 


sepemerecncysval ven Darts | Ole ens sees 192 
List of parts for motor and trailer cars..... 194-195 
Motor compressor, description of.......... 172-175 
Oo B.pnéumatic vovernor:. i... ....).-: 181-182, 186 
OcB. spneumatic Lovernor, parts ol, 7.1...) se. 186 
JET PRAYED 2 sole egann teen rete Gen Scant hes CRE Pae aria 181-182 
Compressed air in railway work.:.....2...¢... 491-492 


Currents that will fuse wires of different substances.530 


D 
Dead level, in braking systems................ 237-238 
Dimensions and resistance of copper wire.......... 032 
E 
NCCLINCRESDAKOS ot ee ttre. tae teeter abst tater as las 238-244 
BASicCm GING Olen, Oey eet eee Rr sel ee. 238-239 
PPACTACSIDE Taleb eld, orcas Meee MEN ee AR cd 242-244 
Briccemariing. construction sols se. ssf aee be. 243 
WV OSI NOUSCs «snare tne ats dane tea es 239-242 
Westinghouse, construction of............. 240-241 
Westinehouse operation>olin,. o. 6+ eon: 241-242 
PAeChricetretent lOCOMOLIVEs come ae DZD 4: 
Economy of, compared with steam......... 013-514 
MASObriGn OCOMOLIVOMees:.c2--ael) > anise: Moca 272-342 
PAGheCOlmDressore COULTOL. 2 ade ya eee er et 315 
Air compressor motor switch.............. 306-315 
Air pump governor, sectional view......... 314-315 
Bipolar, cearless -D.-Cemotor.: ie. wae 277-278 
PB viselNercOUp ler <cuts du, viene Ons ee 301-303 


es caliner coupler SOCK eta mr areyan er ree 301-302 


694 INDEX 


Electric locomotive—Continued. 


Control: eut out-switch .244We we pee ae BA? 3o0 
Control (fases Yk Os 52-5, cae es arene outta 311-314 
Gurrent: hmit’rélay iia 4 sheet. ae eae 310-313 
Forced ‘ventilation: v.24 antes. oie ee oe 276-336 
Heating apparatisy. cc fier. 1k eeoieeien eae 281 
Main cut-out switches............. nelson 296-298 
Main: switchesii Wis /eee ss Serene eee 296-297 
Master control apparatus, list of parts........ 302 
Master “controller sto. kee eat eee 302-304 
Master controller, main switch............. 305-307 
Master controller, overhead switch......... 305-307 
Mechanical .construction) + j2e4K4 246 sae 276-281 
Motor ,anmatare 6056 culo iw wee ere Gee 282 
Motor control apparatus, parts of.......... 292-301 
Motor, controlecontactOtny s.2-cce eee 293 
Motor controls grid resistance... sen eee 295 
Motor. controle reversers = +44 6 4514s sa eee 294 
Motor. controlerheostatss<. ¥. 2 eet ee 295-296 
Motor. fuse DOXs4% «sale ace Ste teeter ee 299 
Negativetrainrcable.. Wo... 4s ee ene 305-307 
Operation of control ean nie eee 288-292 
Overhead, contact “device Ainvatee ee eee: 300-3801 
Overhead «shoe, fuse DOxes ne ae eee ee 300 
Rating -andscapacitwa. eee eee 272-275 
Thirdrail’ contact, shoes, cen eee ee ee 300 
Third ail ishoestusesbDox ase eee eae ee 299-300 
rack sander control eae eee eee 3162317 
Track sander electro-pneumatie valve..... 317-318 
Track sander ‘main Switch... 50. Ae 306-316 
Track sander operating switches........... 316-317 
Train» cable “ac. hse sei sae eee ere 307-310 


Train cable. connection. boxeS.............. 310-312 


INDEX 


Electric locomotivye—Continued. 


Tram cablescoupler: plug, ae. bats eo veer 309-310 
Train cable coupler socket................ 308-310 
Train operation, controller steps........... 320-322 
Lrain-*operation, general +... 2s. hoe. cle 318-326 
Train operation, path of current.............. 324 
Train operation, position of reversers.......... 322 
Train operation, reversing direction........ 324-326 
Train operation, sanding the rails............. 326 
Pransmission, of eurrent <.. 720 t. case we). 326-327 
Mrolleresy Shes fac coh MeSaleesl ee Tae Dee & etek 327 
Wiring diagram of four motors............... 284. 
PD lanation Olay. sea rte see ee es FG 283-286 
Wiring diagram of locomotive reverser........ 287 
UE UaE RAN N AID) A, 07 hyping ev ecas Re econ Grapher ibe mS 286-287 
Electric locomotive of Indiana Union Traction. .386-395 
TS CHR NICIMROAT CIOL belt. nc kie in thee ac. tas 394-395 
DG VeL PAINT Werner Cm centre te se oe ay ns 393 
SCOR OM LISD ie Semmes ens ane a he ey ee ae ie 388 
PAR CS Meee ae te nO AMG Gs yer ae 393-394 
Grolacnzei ie as BUNS Rigen MAS Uae Sodia Oh bab RR emo 392 
GrOTreVaAlmCLIINCHSIONSi. Chitte ec. iste horas claret ets 386 
NEAT COMTCTISE Rens tent rie ae eer se, seb ats es 395 
TAY EAD EDS. noe ege hrs MP APC DR iain an aca Ala: Aa ease a 389 
WTOLUTEALTIULLUN GN so far cet ee Nita cer cs ete 388-392, 
NLOLORMUEUSE “DOLGCTSn oe a sess tater eta ee, 392 
NOLO eCOLATNULA LOM: atueit Ae a ocr wie ete eee ee 391 
LOLOMMBUSDCIISION hint wy cro ase alae tre ene eae 388 
reC UIC CT “1 ralnic. ve. cast tc, ten Te 392-393 
Trolley base, and retrievers .................. 395 
Trucks, description and dimensions........ 386-389 
392 


VPN St MATA fc ere Lee ee Me ey ite ata 


696 INDEX 


Electric locomotive of N. Y., N. H. & H. Ry..... 326-342 
Armature mounted ............ ona tint e382 
AUXINArIOS A ee ates eee te a ne eee 340-341 
Cab nip oe Pei eke tate ea eg Cee eee enn 320 
Control) systema. soe a tei ae tee 337-340 
Current ‘collection 400g. non eet en ee 336 
Description hOleern se tivee en ee ae eee 328-336 
Dimensions *and @performance.., voen... eee 341 
Driving eo Ul ieee neh ee A Rate pee 333 
Hiquipments 7s sete! < yr ease wes oe nei eee 330-335 
Frame andrtrucksecr ese ee eee 328-329 
Master controller tele ee eee 337-340 
MOtors’s 2: Src he ree, vin ee ee 330-331 
Pockets in driver for quill fingers.......... 334-335 
Speed ‘recorder v7? wie - ea es ona «eee 342 
SUSpensiOnvOlLMOLOrs 2. eee eee 332-334 
Tests) ono Sats cit hen een ore aes eee 341-342 
Unit? switch@eroipeee. to ae eee EPO aC 339 

Electric locomotive—new type...........-...05. 007-511 
Advantares claimed *for... ae. -soe eee eee 907 
Flexible: coupling ean. tae ey ci eee d10-511 
Plan-and elevation ere 6. ee cope nee 009 

Kvolution ofthe brakershoess...- ee 244-251 
Corning SCY Dense. eck tarneks et eee 245 
Motor and ‘trailer slioesi, 2 pan. ee eee 247 
Steel back shoereyes 0. ce ena 248-249, 251 

F 

Fusing effects of currents... .....ee eae ee 038 
G 

General Electric Co.’s air brake...... Cait cunce 196-231 


Ait “GOMPFeSSOL:, 94,0. coe eee eke eee ee 198 


INDEX 697 


General Electric Co.’s air brake—Continued. 
Air compressor, care and maintenance of. .199-202 


Air compressor, direction of rotation.......... 204. 
PILE COMPECSsOl, (LIS OL sParts nena eee #7 eee 201 
Air compressor, method of removal........ 204-205 
(ATE COMPDIessOl ValyeSies cree ae whe en 202-203 
Biaivomey Ndete nig, Moston. meer nner Pa ola-olo 
Conipincdsswitcoandd, fuse... ae ren 203-209 
Gut-ouL stopeandrangle COCKS. ses rene en 215 
Emergency straight air brake equipment. . .218-231 

Pocnens marrancementin0t ve. ee tin. eer 219-220 

ISURULG DAT Sree otitis on eta ve eee Goat. 219-221 

DIP IN SeconnectiOuse ses eck he ee atense LPAI PAY 

GY eee LON ibe: Otenpeten opie riee oan toy rete ately see 222 

Pyperomimovorman S-ValVGw.ci-e ee. see 222, 

PYDERO SM RDALELS 20 bets ce eet ee Be ee erate 224. 

EVD erSe Dabis= POSiLIONS Olt cs fans c's Liles DORR ADNS 
Emergency valve, type E. form F......... 226-230 

SEES SOL Meee ore or ats: Se ctere ete Vactss oclape wars raped 

OD ELALIONSO len eet aie eae ss acts: 229-230 
Y DA NEVES) Gag TN Lib Cele Germs AMM ei ny oe, ene ER Ag 216-217 
Generamconstructlonc. 6 sa. ee Viieeio. oO. 
IOV LILO LPR Sony rete a a ne enemas Sieh eae atte o 205 
Governor, inspection and care of.......... 207-208 
COVER bee seCllONals VIGW meses chats a ee 206 
EAS SEM COM LION 28 iz un \ eae ols et ks Ps Paes 215-216 
MoLontialt: SubraKe) Val VGur el eet ete un ae 209-212 
Motorman’s brake valve, installation of....... 212 
Motorman’s brake valve, positions of...... 209-210 
Motorman’s brake valve, type S. form B....... Qa: 
Motorman’s brake valve, type S. form C....... 210 
Bipesconnecions... a. vane aya res 230-231 


ROSERVOLTRUT ass oh RO OATA Ue 213-214 


698 ; INDEX 


General Electric Co.’s air brake—Continued. 


Safety valve and air gauge.............. 214-215 
Straight. air‘ brakes equipment \. J...2).-0 ures 196 
Straight air brake, piping diagram........... IRF 
H 
Head light, enclosed are, for street railway ser- 

VICE 3 Sen ee (a eee en 396-399 
Adjusting the yheadhehives ss ee ee 397 
Connecting pic Sake hres enantio ee 397 
Enclosing globe, reflector, carbons............. 398 
Installation ofsystent.-. +... ue eee 396 
Trimming the sneadlicht).) 6 ee 398-399 

Hints to" Motormens 3 925 ante te ee 49-55 
Brake pipe rupture.en o-s, eee 51 
Control arid branch’ pipe rupture. ..... 23. 3 52 
Cutting out brakes eeu. -... cee cee eee 49 
General? hitite 23.040 a. ee ee ee 52-54 
Rail *sdvi ditigs oo SN. tye 2 eet ee 50 
Reversing “motorsitc,.., ee eee ee 51 
SWILChINg CAIS a 2) ae ee Fat huecios bie» 49 
Unexpected brake application................ 50 

I 

Interurban railways—increasing profits of...... 919-522 
Cost of operation yess ga acradecs onto eee 520 
Distribution, ofilaber. meee ee 921-522 

K 

K “triple :valvers 22. ssaa rae eene aeons pee 644-665 

Characteristics: (of 2) 2s sae eae ee 644-646 


Names of parts......... bolo, aah Nata et ae eee 647-649 


INDEX 699 


K triple valve; vertical cross section of......... .. £648 

K 2 triple valve,.,... bE ee Bee idgticcialeca Someta he 649-665 
ACUONS OL COX Dae ce ky, cas) <4 1h ote nee 649-652 
@etochiisinia line. yaa tastes | cutee rule honk Sere 666-667 
BINGLOENCY POSItIOThe «Pos. nei ess ae ae aele eal 663-665 
PACER MIC W CO ls Metre ao dt eae OS Aken Bike 650 
full release and charging position. .......652-653 
PU esceVices DOS LOM + temere ee uleta: wee ae 657-658 
Taps DOSILION ieee aa) ae es wae See 658-659 
MAID ULATION Wee eat ies et a ene ewer Ly, 665 
MUN CESORVICe, POSILION. fhe ean ewe a oR 654-656 — 
retarded release and charging position...... 660-663 

L 

WADE UDO mal Uely tacit, ornare Teco ee 2 669-688 
CALeUisii Olives Hare ns Cie oe eee 688-690 
(ATER Se WEED 9 AYO SPANO Ph Sern Ao Mile hil i ur se ge Ba 676 
PEMET CTV i ALIUSLULODN te fev one toast el ete vhs ahs 683-685 
PTET A ATO ts AUR neg Bacar ile nails eke 673 
Full release and charging position............ 674 
Graduated release position..........0.02.. 682-683 
hustolletione aliioccalenOb nea gire . enenn 686-688 
WE RUIVELOULUILESS Ol ieee ict surat culos, lente sta 669-671 
Na raGadr ik Da RESa ce Pasi eaten eet Oe ha aky 672-674 
GD retahioninOtiesusec. so ty arises hte Te ate 676-688 
Quick servige Position: OMe ay. ene eae as ae thee 675 
Service ‘application ‘position... 0..22....... 677-679 
Barvicanla «position. 2) s/s. awe. mitmaden oo 680-682 
Supplementary veservoir’.1..%.)...204..... 7.672 
WerlicalE CPOSS) SeCtIONS .\ihinct nace) Reeth een le oe ot 671 

Lightning arresters, aluminum................ 463-490 
Assembling of .filling.cones..............4.% 482-485 


Condenser action Mee pa aps 8 Lao ee reg ;, 466 


700 INDEX Rh apenrys 52 


Lightning arresters, aluminum—Continued. 


Connections and willn?) vo, scsi ninie ee 480-481 
Cross: section (OT 75.1) ati atte Hee ea ee eee 467 
Daily inspection and repairs.............. 488-490 
Design: Ofek ee eee ora tan ee chee ones eet 468-469 
Klectrical characteristics: Olan aces ser cee 463-466 
Falling: tank-with? oligo eee... ae tree eee 486 
Balm dissolutions). ee ee 466-468 
Gap ‘setting as (tite scr bts wenn oe eee 478-480 
Horn ‘caps, clearances. ..2% 254 ee 476 
Horn *gaps qinstallation’ ola. a. eer 472-476 
Horn’-ca ps 1ocation Ofte. cee eee 470-477 © 
Horn’ caps, method:0b locking sewn: eee 471 
Horn, gaps; methodsorm support. .1-e 4a eee 474 
Installation of discharge alarm............ 481-482 
Installation of tanks... avi eee ee 476 
Ontdoor installanions <5 hong tie een eee ee 478 
Placing “arresters InsServices ait alse, ee 486-488 
Testing and preliminary charging......... 485-486 
Three phase arrester for 35,000 volts.......... 474 
Three phase arrester for 110,000 volts......... 475 
Transfer device?) i. Weir sie rae 489 
Valve TactlOn scat Ok oe acer aee ee ae 463-464 
Volt ampere, characteristic curve.............. 465 
Lightning arresters ior De Cecircnitan a se) eee 461 


Lightning arresters for D. C. circuit, dimensions of. .462 
Lightning arresters, multigap for. alternating 


currents: en ee ac Ee eee ene eee eee 410-430 
A. C. arresters with shunt resistance.......... 446 
AdvVantaces* 01s. 2: foe ie ee ae 410-411 
Basic principles, of ase cee ee ee 414 
Choke coils sca ie eee eee ee 430-431 


Choke coils for A. ©. arresters.............454-455 


INDEX 701 


Lightning arresters, multigap for alternating 
currents—Continued. 


Connections of Type G. E., Forms F!, F?...... 440 
Constant. GUYrent “ATPESters ss... 0. css cs ss 428-430 
PATA UEVOREILCU Ly odo sirens Secale ope te onic ee 416-417 
Cylinders and resistance rods...............6: 418 
DSTI TOMO lL SSDULK iste eee eter ee ete ety Wiel. svat 411 


Dimensions of A. C. arresters high voltage. .447-453. 
Dimensions of A. C. arresters low voltage. ..442-445 


Direct current lightning arresters ......... 432-433 
PPIRCONTMECLING AS WILCHESG carcate csertsraicieenetate iene ae 429 
Disconnecting switches for A. C. arresters. .442-445 
Dasteibutions ols static:Stress so-so 412-413 
BSS PETRY) PNR OU beat bCnure wreath VT Ee Sn Moma geo 413 
GOL ICH eae D Aue ame elie tert Aa Ms dake te otc fe 424 
OTIS @MeCULEN Tit LCS Mamet tine Se aty rss ss area y's 421 
Gradeuesiintaresistaneec ce.) fats sie ars eas 414-415 
MET TOUNC A CORLICCEIONS mead \cecetseenn fot fists leah pe oa iol ace 433-436 
Grounded Y and non-grounded neutral systems.419 
PIOUIMCLASS SLY Po meer om eter: kt wie dice eae 431-432 
List of shunt resistance arresters up to 5,700 
VLLG MR tice te Mew irate. eee ke ee 437-439 
Wow evollage warrestets: . fin. see 427-428, 441 
Marltiplex  GONNECHIONS ey. gore ales ees ules eo 420 
Mecriovnanisotedisclarcewew sa. sheets wie. at 425 
Spacing and SOLtIN Ole CAD Geeta et eee ceding 422 
WolLAPOMBEAN VG LO Lorian ties inet emu camara ot 423 
ASAT a ANT RE LESO A) ee RN OSH ey cece eM TM ine lO 418-421 
PAOUONVORLEALYOSCET) aco tetas, oie cco etete adeetel mee. isl Ty 2 426 
Lightning arresters, recent developments of..... 400-462 
Action of, under dangerous voltage........ 405-406 
Alumintim. and, electrolytic ty pec... seuss. clos 403 


GEHTS ALLOSLOL Gass rE Merg scr hs eae of out eo gee Pree ti fok Sate 407 


702 INDEX 


Lightning arresters, recent developments of—Continued. 


Connectrens. (Ori. 5 OF ecg cat tale a ean ae 408 
General remarks concerning object of...... 400-402 
General theory of multigap arrester.......... 404 
Horn’ arrester: 2 a. 1S SARE eek TR 402, 458-460 
How «to: fill\-the, arrestercesvg 0.) eye cee arene 407 
Installing low voltage’ aluminum arrester. .406-407 
Operation. Of piace oo a er ee 408-409 
Station: arrester: 0.5. een eee eee 406 
M 

Minimum brake distance and clearance of metal 
part of fuses amd switeleg, . 1.0.7. 0....... 039 
Mamtenanee.of hand brakes.) o) ne are 207-260 
Maintenance .of schedule. time.....:...........2.0. 232 

N 

National A. C. D. C. air brake apparatus...... 161-168 
Diagram: of €quipmenta, em.) ee eee 162 
Compressor’, avid atsty eke eee 163-166 
Compressor, method of starting........... 166-167 
Compressor, method of suspension........ 167-168 
‘Compressor, partly “dismantled Si. wean. coe 165 
Compressor, type BS Bs 2x.ct) Je ental 
Type N.: ol pneumatie: SOVernOTa nasa eeeeiee 168 
National straight air traction brake...:......... 79-158 
An’ 2 motor COMPLeSsOL ee tek Seri tenes 104-106 
single-truck sequipmenti: = 6 se ceeernane ee 105 
WITT LOLS Giiniaidra garcia te ere eee 134-136 
brush ..2ear's wey geet cpt ok eet ee 92-95 
care Yor commutator: Wasa es ee 94 


connecting Ups: este see eer eenee 86-88 


INDEX *- {08 


National straight air traction brake—Continued. 


ea IMOL Ue COMPLCSSOL ay ciatie tiers tare REALL bas 85-105 
AD Se CeSETICS A WOUTGS civic Rati Paeyaat ete ate 99-105 
inspection and maintenance ............ 89-99 
REG Ola mae ranOL coud ng ees 97-98 
suction sand discharge: wWalvecse.cs. co uc wees 96 
COMING pee mts ae rety ters Mela ceo} 101-102 
Chi bakeg YAW Veg sin aahl, Sealy Paley ap mena Lp Deyo Dia 135 

PuIN GNUese Istallalion Of: tars ow awe welts ew 131 

PN MEME CSEI MOL Tn ice Muas Sher he eh ade tite Aid ssl oc inal 128-129 

PTareschvolr installations Ol Manche he aic sa 6s 130 

PS VAKeLCy rN OCr ewes wet yi PL nee oc io, G"s 124-126 
CIRCA VCO Lien Gert ee) eatin sree dl. ie 125 
inspection and maintenance........... 127-128 
TU SEAN BETA TREE Dp AC Velye ie ine A ne We pg ea 126 

BOR UUCLOM Ss EVIE tsctrt etn idee tious ess 154-155 

PaMOT OCR Ym VOLVCuans teil 4 oh ay ook eke ks 149-153 
installation and maintenance of....... 153-154 
THOUTILCCE OMEN ACK Oboe ct ae Fee e Ade a ak 5 152 
mounted on brake cylinder.....:......... 151 
BOGHIOIIA MACUL A I opeee teh age ee vice a Mod awed 150 

Energy consumed in braking.............. 160-161 

Bene LOC Kana tee ire Cred pie vd) Gate Re Cai So ame, 136-137 

General arrangement of ...............- 79-80, 83 

PRSELUCHION SLO. MOLOTINAM ics cies) facets es 154-158 

WAI AU Lhe tral lersians |. t,  Sestity Play's or soe cap astatw gts 158 

EGLO MANAG Val VGus wanes. a eee oe 137-146 
AVIS GHUMLAELO Wen O19. cs este uacte cael amor, nme rake 145 
LAD ATOSl GLO sp. Scns seid bese en emia ean Ae a 144 
maintenance of .. San gait acing etek Le PACE Ml oh. ad 146 
TAT tek Chae re rae ile ey eee a 140 
positions of operating handle............. 142 


quick release or emergency...........143-149 


704. 


INDEX 


National straight air traction brake—Continued. 


Motorman’s valve, running and service positions. 143 


sectional: view itr. eae oa eer eee ee eee EL 
slow, ‘SCP VICE) DOSTHION 4.) sc ie ee ee 144 
PIPING At Faksta ea ee eee aac eee eee 131-134 
Piping diagram ..... Se clteri sets ies vi aac Te 132 
Piston travel naa ee oe eee 159-160 
Phenmatic ‘covernoren,. 4 eee ee 106-113 
installation wotwes: te weapeeaeee 118-114, 122 
operation 2ODM ys wack ee en eee 114-122 
VIEW 7SHLOWEIE M Daris 2. ccleaner 123 
Type: C.\sandertwalyece: sr se7 ars ater ee eee 148 
Type* C..- CF 3compressonins ia aes ee 147-148 


New air brake equipments for steam railroads. .545-546 


Condensed description of latest devices. ... .547-589 


New York Air Brake Co.’s B 2 equipment...... 547-564 
Acceleration valvey 4c. haces nee 571-573 
Acceleration valve, sectional view.............. 572 
Acceleration valve, names of parts............ O73 
Acceleration” valve, "slide ‘valves, . ee ae nee 573 
B’2 *brakervalvests haere eer eaters 073-564 
Automatic release and straight air applica- 

Lt) s eer MMM nae Cae ll iden B25 6 599-560 
Himergency | position ih sca ese ae ee 062-563 
Face of shdervalvewv a. fa ee ee eee boS 
Gradtiating” positionsy: seen are ee 061-562 
Lap positioner eee eee 560-561 
Release * position) 2287 tech etete ie ee ee ee DoT 
Rannin ge positions ee eee ee 508-560 
Sechionaleviewsiie sh aan. vane eee erence 504-550 
Bi2tHePeequipmentte. +. swe eae eee 049-550 
B 28H VS, equipmientiniaa: oa. neers eae 048-549 


Be2. S..eqtiipment, -ae. a eee ee coe a ee 548 


INDEX 705 


N. Y. Air Brake Co.’s B 2 equipment—Continued. 


B 2 8. switch engine equipment............... 564 
SRT ECD INT e rn iom hoe vine cape ky fie tier i Betsy, 582-584 
CTraCTERIStiGs 20 been stare yrs (otra Te wilt hat oa 547-548 
Duplexes pressure controller? *\.\ssewe co. een 965-570 
Duplex pressure cut out-cock............+. 569-570 
Duplex pressure regulating valve.......... 565-568 
Duplexapressure supply-Valvev a. 4.6 ee pe 506 
General instructions for operating......... 000-552 
Pichespeeds controlene cnn sare c awe ee 977-581 
High speed controller, action of........... 0718-579 
High speed controller, sectional view........... 578 
Quick release valve for switch engines...... 579-581 
Siralclire arr eduoinomvalVews is yt. vars 074-576 
Straight air reducing valve, names of parts..575-576 
Straight air reducing valve, purpose of........ ol4 
Straight air reducing valve, sectional view..... O75 
O 
OVeragone (meOla Kes wer een wer. wwe Gees So ee ...202-260 
ee remOlen ANCL eOLAKeG tree adie yt te fea 204-255 
Lengthened brake chains................. 200-296 
What to do in emergency case............. 256-257 
B 
Power plant auxiliaries, centralized control of. ..516-519 
Power required to skid: car wheels. 2. ak. 234 
S 
SRC TAD OMA DM DTAKES hho touts ct via cy neni ey genta 260-261 
T 
Treatment iior- electrical, shock s27.5. 5 jet. os. dia gc: 024-528 


Hules to-ber observed Mn. ow el aoe. 526-528 


706 INDEX 


Trolley #iiteee swag hie nae, a Ue Se ety eer 493-506 


Characteristics -of eee. hea oe tela oes 494 
Correct method: of testing: 7.0. 208 ees 496-501 
Tien cy OL; Memes) ee eee ve oar eee eee 493-497 
General method of suspension................. 495 
Tniiuence: of) Cuprous,0xidey ere eae 500-502 
Leneth of insuse-at presenti oye sie ee 493 
Method: ofemanutacture.. ..... 22. eee 502-503 
Requirements of for efficient service........ 495-496 
Results of tests of various grades.......... 498-499 
Turn-tables, electrically operated.............3438-354 
Advantages OLR 3.7.7 eee ee 343-345, 350 
Methods of current transmission........... 302-354 
Turntable with steam donkey............. 344-347 
Type of motgr required foot. eee eee 349-351 
W 
Westinghouse A. A. M. brake equipment........... 2-48 
Adarm ‘whistle: trey saree ae ee ee ee o2 
Arrangement Of apparatiisns 0. ene 20-24 
Auxillary reservoir) weer ee en eee eee 39-40 
Brake ‘valves ok. Pee ee ee ee 32-35 
Catechism'’on) vase Se 2a ee ee 50-77, 
Combined strainer and check valve........... 37-39 
Condnchor’s) Valve eins tem) connec cane ae 39-36, 50 
Controls pipe iw cencapei sn ne tee te eee 29-32 
Diagram’ showingsarrancement... ye. ae eee D 
Electric pump governor, adjustment of... .23-24, 27 
Heéd valve, locationsOL eee ew eee ae ee 28-29 
Inspection and: maintenance 7... .6e) ee eee 40-42 
Tnstallation of Witte ss ce eran 24-26, 28 


heading characteristitam0.. wea. ern ee 2-3 


INDEX | 707 


Westinghouse A. A. M. brake equipment—Continued. 


TIOCHELON GOH OIT. COMPTESSOM a eer a en eee yn | 20 
Main reservoirs, why two are used..........21-22 
M. triple valve, charging position.............. ibs 
ESET LION: Ole, afeeierel eben A tbe ess (ak aw 
Ser velicy ss POSIUIOU: Migs” eign tt eat ga .7y 2, 19 
eraduated release position....... Bes eer git 18 
THD OONLMOUS ae ee eee a Ee nL go, 16-17 
OVGLATLONMO La tee iret ae eerie wy temeree cies) 13-19 
service application position.............. 14-15 
MPeratiniog ParlsqgOLitowoy aetna. et er a) 4-7 
Operation. equipment. pono... vere clare ce! 42-44 
EP ACTICT EARLS ITI CSUR: arene eta Coan nae ner aie 45-48 
POOL GUY SVALV Gia ie)ei5 shee a)o crs einige gla, bv aia ein'ele ae to ~ 28 
Snap switches, where placed............... 24, 126 
ARSCES MN See tans TOC EE ONE IY SY Rede eiilicare, Aer) Sp Ra a a ge a 20 
Where to locate compressor switches............ 28 
Westinghouse E. T. locomotive brake equipment .585-689 
Advantages over older systems............ 585-586 
PX GRAU CE MICU GOs cd D DAL ALIS. wate eked oes ere 091-594 
PATILOIIALIGe ODE ALION vaaat. ne rein ty o oo bla Aine 602-612 
Automatic operation automatic release......... 602 
Automatic operation double heading....... 610-613 
Automatic operation emergency........... 607-608 
Automatic operation emergency lap........ 609-610 
Automatic operation release position.......... 611 
Automatie operation service application... .602-604 
Automatic operation service lap ........... 604-607 
WP ACCCI ISIE iy. tore eee a oe cod eae ea eaten er Ree 638-642 
Menimene ine eLeature.ss, «cs arts es 643-644 | 
DIST U DIL e BV ALY Genie ot ate nt AO 094-597, 613 
Distributing valve; diagram of... ow kt 096 


Distributing valve, independent application .597-599 


708 INDEX 


Westinghouse E. T. locomotive brake equipment—Cont. 
Distributing valve, independent release... ..600-602 


Distributing valve, independent lap........... 601 
Distributing valve, release position............ 598 
Heed “valvéoy ee Aue oe ioe an cen eee 630-634 
Feed: valve, diagram ‘of .closéd2, Jy... 0. saree 633 
Feed ‘valye,diagramt.o1. operat 2 =e ee 633 
Feed valve, function of..... iri Mian octicrne Nee | 630-633 
Feed valve, methods of adjustment........... 634 
Feed valve, names of parts..... Pop shy ets Oa hese 634 
General instructions for operating........ 586-589 
Graduating valve—equalizing slide valve...... 612 
Independent brake valve... 22a. ee ; .625-629 
Independent brake valve, action of........ 625-628 
Independent brake valve, interior views... .627-629 
Independent brake valve. lap and release posi- 

TIONS: °.) ote ae ee ee 628 
Independent brake valve, service position...... 628 
Parts of iH Te equipmentira.. 2) ee ee 589-591 
Pump ?20vernor ssa se eee ee 635-638 — 
Pump ‘governor, -description $01 as ree ee 637 
Reducing Valves oy rere ck ere ar ge 635 
Safety valwewti.c waves oti eee en 2 ene 614-616 
Type H automatic brake valve............ 616-619 

diagrammaticn View oo oe eee 618 

emergency position o.yc sya a ee 624 

holding positioniey, =u tt are ree 623 

laps positions ca eet ee te eae 622 

localion Olsen ree ee ee PCN a is, oor 624-625 

names /of parts 2300s. eee eee ee 625 

release <POsition ah. aye sien nee 623 

rotary valve:seatiin pee. See ee eee 618 


TUNING POStUlOTU ech gata eee 621 


INDEX 1 09 


Westinghouse E. T. locomotive brake equipment—Cont. 
Type H automatic brake valve, service position.621-622 


SIT SeCLIONMaVIC We ee tn whice Sor A OE. oe 620 

LOZ My Le VyiRO Lultey Pree Petes to de a ro ocd, 5 619-620 
Westinghouse-Galton Friction Curves.............. 236 
Westinghouse Straight Air Brake Equipment. . .262-266 
Diagrameor schedules Nivel ar cuts sees a ee os 263 
ParterO reschedule co tide Ae Werte. ss 685: 262-265 
CHOC ames Sco awete eucwrek me Merete ne alo 265-266 
Westinghouse Straight Air 8. M. E. Equipment. .266-271 
PCO DLESSOLA Sem V Loe ky te tendietal ene e nie cate ah 201 

ES PAC GV TIC Clue were marries tanta tate at Oty cw Rm 270 
SCR ReuVaLver ae iiss bio ch ches Wee kee hy aOR 269 
FULT Gah UNC aN ch SPP oan RAR Foie te came aa ea ean 266 

JD Pre el eds oY eutaaintas) Rigo tore oN) OR 0 ome eeai rs Wrat Made iy ba ar 269 
Ore WO-CAl ered ODCPULION aa) er aiks Bae eke aie ais 267 

Wa EDaeMmerreney Lenture,/ox en svete ks Sela. PO Te2 tl 
Why steam roads adopted electricity.......... 514-515 
Wire and cables, carrying capacities of............ ool 
RV MCOTISLONITS ety Lek akel sine ee NES RD 033-007 
ATES aN (OE Son, Pin ete Saag gag ge 529-530 


Wooden ties and preservation of...... has eae cele 522-523 








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